lawerence all year final

Unit conversions

The process of converting one unit of measurement to another, often using conversion factors.

Metric / SI units

The standard system of measurement used in science, which includes units like meters, kilograms, and seconds.

Significant digits and rounding

The digits in a number that carry meaningful information about its precision, with rules for rounding to maintain accuracy.

Graph parts and graph interpretation

Understanding the components of graphs (axes, labels, scales) and being able to analyze the data they represent.

Independent vs. dependent variable

The independent variable is manipulated in an experiment, while the dependent variable is measured in response.

Controlled variables / constants / control group

Factors kept constant in an experiment to ensure that the results are due to the independent variable; the control group is not exposed to the treatment.

Qualitative vs. quantitative observations

Qualitative observations describe characteristics or qualities, while quantitative observations involve numerical measurements.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases

A theory that describes the behavior of gases in terms of particles in constant motion, explaining properties like pressure and temperature.

Pressure

The force exerted per unit area, commonly measured in pascals (Pa).

Volume

The amount of space occupied by a substance, typically measured in liters or cubic meters.

Temperature

A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance, usually measured in degrees Celsius or Kelvin.

Boyle's Law

A gas law stating that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature.

Charles' Law

A gas law stating that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure.

Gay-Lussac's Law

A gas law stating that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant volume.

Combined Gas Law

An equation that combines Boyle's, Charles's, and Gay-Lussac's laws, relating pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas.

Direct relationship vs. inverse relationship

A direct relationship means that as one variable increases, the other also increases; an inverse relationship means that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

STP

Standard Temperature and Pressure, defined as 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere of pressure, used for gas calculations.

Force vs. pressure

Force is a push or pull on an object, while pressure is the force applied per unit area.

Gases vs. liquids vs. solids

States of matter distinguished by particle arrangement: gases have no fixed shape or volume, liquids have a fixed volume but no fixed shape, and solids have both fixed shape and volume.

Why Kelvin must be used in gas law calculations

Kelvin is used because it is an absolute temperature scale, ensuring that temperature values are always positive.

How particle motion explains pressure and temperature effects

Increased particle motion leads to higher temperature and greater collisions with container walls, resulting in higher pressure.

Real-world gas law examples

Examples include the behavior of balloons, tanks, bubbles, and hot air balloons under varying conditions.

Reference point / origin

The starting point used to define the position of an object in a coordinate system.

Coordinate system and direction

A system that uses numbers to represent a point in space, including direction (e.g., positive or negative axes).

Position

The location of an object in relation to a reference point.

Distance

The total length of the path traveled by an object, regardless of direction.

Displacement

The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object, including direction.

Time / time interval

Time is the ongoing sequence of events, while a time interval is the duration between two events.

Speed

The rate at which an object covers distance, typically measured in meters per second (m/s).

Velocity

The speed of an object in a specific direction.

Acceleration

The rate of change of velocity over time, measured in meters per second squared (m/s²).

Magnitude

The size or quantity of a physical measurement, often referring to a vector's length.

Delta

A symbol (Δ) used to denote a change in a quantity, such as Δx for change in position.

Free fall

The motion of an object under the influence of gravitational force only, without air resistance.

Gravitational acceleration

The acceleration of an object due to gravity, approximately 9.81 m/s² on Earth.

Force

An interaction that causes an object to change its velocity, measured in newtons (N).

Newton

The SI unit of force, defined as the force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass by one meter per second squared.

Net force

The overall force acting on an object, calculated by vector addition of all individual forces.

Newton's 3 Laws of Motion

Three fundamental principles that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it.

Mass vs. weight

Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight is the force of gravity acting on that mass.

Vector

A quantity that has both magnitude and direction, such as force or velocity.

Gravitational force

The attractive force between two masses, proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Normal force

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface against an object in contact with it.

Tension force

The pulling force transmitted through a string, rope, or cable when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.

Friction force

The resistive force that opposes the motion of an object in contact with a surface.

Static friction

The frictional force that prevents an object from starting to move.

Kinetic friction

The frictional force acting on an object that is already in motion.

Applied force

A force that is applied to an object by a person or another object.

Free Body Diagram (FBD)

A graphical representation used to visualize the forces acting on an object.

Energy

The capacity to do work or produce change, existing in various forms such as kinetic or potential energy.

Joule

The SI unit of energy, defined as the work done when a force of one newton displaces an object by one meter.

Mechanical energy

The sum of potential and kinetic energy in an object.

Kinetic energy

The energy an object possesses due to its motion, calculated as KE = 1/2 mv².

Potential energy

The energy stored in an object due to its position or configuration, often gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational potential energy

The potential energy of an object related to its height above the ground, calculated as PE = mgh.

Work

The transfer of energy that occurs when a force is applied over a distance, calculated as W = Fd.

Positive work

Work done when the force and displacement are in the same direction.

Negative work

Work done when the force and displacement are in opposite directions.

Power

The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred, measured in watts (W).

Law of Conservation of Energy

A principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

Energy transformations

The process of changing energy from one form to another, such as potential energy to kinetic energy.

Thermal energy from friction / collisions

The energy generated as heat due to friction or collisions between objects.

AC vs. DC

Alternating Current (AC) changes direction periodically, while Direct Current (DC) flows in one direction.

Conductors vs. insulators

Conductors allow electric current to flow easily, while insulators resist the flow of electric current.

Electric charge

A property of subatomic particles that causes them to experience a force in an electric field, measured in coulombs (C).

Coulomb (C)

The SI unit of electric charge, defined as the amount of charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second.

Net charge

The total electric charge of an object, taking into account both positive and negative charges.

Electric force

The force between charged objects, which can be attractive or repulsive depending on the charges involved.

Electric field

A region around a charged object where other charged objects experience a force.

Stronger vs. weaker electric field

A stronger electric field exerts a greater force on a charge than a weaker electric field.

Static electricity

The accumulation of electric charge on the surface of objects, often resulting in a discharge.

Law of conservation of charge

A principle stating that the total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant.

Static discharge

The rapid transfer of electric charge from one object to another, often resulting in a spark.

Lightning

A natural electrical discharge of high voltage that occurs during thunderstorms.

Electric current

The flow of electric charge, typically measured in amperes (A).

Electron flow

The movement of electrons through a conductor, which constitutes electric current.

Conventional current

The flow of positive charge, which is opposite to the actual flow of electrons.

Resistance

The opposition to the flow of electric current, measured in ohms (Ω).

Resistor

A component used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit.

Ohm (Ω)

The SI unit of electrical resistance, defined as the resistance that allows one ampere of current to flow with one volt of potential difference.

Voltage

The electric potential difference between two points in a circuit, measured in volts (V).

Potential difference

The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit.

Electrical potential energy

The energy stored in an electric field, which can be converted into kinetic energy.

Ohm's Law

A fundamental principle stating that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it and inversely proportional to the resistance.

Electric power

The rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form of energy, calculated as P = IV (power = current × voltage).

Electrical energy used

The total energy consumed by an electrical device over time, typically measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

Electric circuit

A closed loop that allows electric current to flow, consisting of a power source, conductors, and loads.

Open circuit

A circuit that is not complete, preventing current from flowing.

Closed circuit

A complete circuit that allows current to flow without interruption.

Series circuit

A circuit in which components are connected end-to-end, so the same current flows through each component.

Parallel circuit

A circuit in which components are connected across common points, allowing multiple paths for current to flow.

Equivalent resistance / total resistance

The total resistance in a circuit, which can be calculated differently for series and parallel configurations.

Basic properties of waves

Characteristics of waves including amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and period.

Amplitude

The half of a wave from its crest position to its troph, related to the wave's energy.

Wavelength

The distance between successive crests or troughs of a wave, often denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ).

Frequency

The number of cycles of a wave that pass a point in one second, measured in hertz (Hz).

Period

The time it takes for one complete cycle of a wave to pass a given point, inversely related to frequency.

Wave motion

The transfer of energy through a medium by oscillations of particles.

Reflection

The bouncing back of a wave when it hits a barrier.

Refraction

The bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in speed.