AP Bio

Enzyme Activity

The rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction, influenced by factors like temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

Competitive Inhibitor

A molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme, blocking normal substrate binding and decreasing reaction rate.

Noncompetitive Inhibitor

A molecule that binds to an enzyme at a different site, changing the shape of the enzyme and preventing substrate binding.

Allosteric Enzyme

An enzyme that has an active site and an allosteric site; binding at the allosteric site can modulate the enzyme's activity.

Mutation

A change in the sequence of amino acids that can alter the shape and function of a protein.

Denaturation of Proteins

The process in which proteins lose their secondary and tertiary structure due to environmental conditions such as pH or temperature.

Macromolecules

Large biological molecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that have distinct structures and functions.

Polarity of Water

The property of water molecules having a slightly positive charge on hydrogen atoms and a slightly negative charge on the oxygen atom, enabling hydrogen bonding.

Hydrogen Bonding

The weak attraction between the positive end of one water molecule and the negative end of another, contributing to properties like cohesion and surface tension.

Cohesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick together, resulting from hydrogen bonds.

Adhesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick to other substances, contributing to capillary action.

Specific Heat of Water

The amount of heat needed to change the temperature of water, which is relatively high due to hydrogen bonding.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction that joins two molecules by removing a water molecule, forming a covalent bond.

Hydrolysis

A process that breaks down a compound by adding water, splitting it into its components.

Dipeptide Formation

The process of combining two amino acids through dehydration synthesis to form a dipeptide.

DNA vs. RNA

RNA is single-stranded and contains uracil, while DNA is double-stranded and contains thymine.

Positive Control

An experimental control that is expected to give a positive outcome, demonstrating that the experiment is capable of producing results.

Negative Control

An experimental control that should not produce a response, showing that any positive result is due to the treatment being tested.

Saturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids that contain no double bonds, are solid at room temperature, and are often derived from animal sources.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds, are liquid at room temperature, and are often derived from plant sources.

Hydrophobic Amino Acids

Amino acids that prefer to be in the interior of proteins, away from water due to their nonpolar nature.

Hydrophilic Amino Acids

Amino acids that are attracted to water and typically found on the exterior of proteins.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells, used in metabolic processes.

Negative Feedback in Metabolism

A regulatory mechanism where a product inhibits its own production, helping maintain homeostasis.

Primary Protein Structure

The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein, determining its unique characteristics and function.

Secondary Protein Structure

The local folding of the polypeptide chain into pleated sheets or alpha helices.

Tertiary Protein Structure

The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein, formed by further folding and interactions between the side chains.

Quaternary Protein Structure

The structure formed by the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein.

RNA vs. DNA Structure

DNA is double-stranded and contains deoxyribose, while RNA is single-stranded and contains ribose.

Gene Expression

The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, often a protein.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA by decoding the information in the mRNA strand.

Codons

Sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA that correspond to specific amino acids.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Introns

Non-coding regions of a gene that are removed during RNA processing.

Exons

Coding regions of mRNA that are expressed and translated into proteins.

Point Mutation

A mutation that alters a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence.

Substitution Mutation

A type of point mutation where one base is replaced by another.

Insertion Mutation

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.

Deletion Mutation

A mutation where one or more nucleotide base pairs are removed from a DNA sequence.

Frame Shift Mutation

Mutations that change the reading frame of codons due to insertions or deletions.

Silent Mutation

A mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.

Missense Mutation

A mutation that results in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein.

Nonsense Mutation

A mutation that introduces a premature stop codon, leading to a truncated protein.

Homeostasis

The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Final Electron Acceptor

In cellular respiration, oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway converting glucose into pyruvate, producing a net gain of ATP.

Krebs Cycle

A series of enzymatic reactions that produces energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A series of complexes that transfer electrons to form a proton gradient, driving the production of ATP.

Calvin Cycle

The set of chemical reactions that take place in chloroplasts during photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Coenzymes in Metabolism

Molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions; examples include NADH and FADH2.

Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT)

A type of fat tissue that generates heat by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation.

Photophosphorylation

The process of using light energy to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death, essential for maintaining health by eliminating old or damaged cells.

Signal Transduction Pathway

A series of molecular events and reactions that lead to a cellular response after binding of a signaling molecule.

Ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.

RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during the process of transcription.

Ligand-Receptor Interaction

The binding of a signaling molecule to its specific receptor, leading to activation of cellular pathways.

Proton Gradient

A difference in the concentration of protons across a membrane, used to generate ATP.

Cellularity

The organization of cells into tissues and organs, responsible for the structure and function of living organisms.

Biological Membranes

Selectively permeable barriers composed primarily of phospholipids and proteins that regulate the movement of substances in and out of cells.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Lysosome

An organelle containing digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Mitochondria

Organelles that are the powerhouses of the cell, where ATP is produced through cellular respiration.

Chloroplast

Organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, converting light energy into sugar.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells internalize substances from their external environment by engulfing them.

Exocytosis

The process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside of the cell.

CHO

Carb and Lipid

CHON

Protein

CHONP

Nucleic acid

Prezygotic

Geographic/Habitat Isolation, Temporal Isolation, Behavioral Isolation, Mechanical Isolation, Gametic Isolation

Postzygotic

Reduced Hybrid Viability, Reduced Hybrid Fertility (Sterility), .Hybrid Breakdown: