Human Geo Units 1,2,3,4 (chpt 5,6,7) 8

What is a map?

A two-dimensional, or flat, representation of Earth’s surface or a portion of it.

Place

A specific point on Earth, distinguished by a particular characteristic

Region

An area distinguished by one or more distinctive characteristics

Map Scale

The ratio between the size of an object on a map and its actual size on the ground determining the level of detail and area coverage.

Small Scale vs. Large Scale Maps

(1/60,000 or 1/6,000) **Remember, the smaller the number, the smaller the scale; the larger the number, the larger the scale. A map of the world is the smallest scale there is.

Cartography

The science of making maps.

Projection

A system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat map.

What is distortion and how does it affect flat maps?

The inevitable misrepresentation of a curved three-dimensional surface when projected onto a flat, two-dimensional map. Changes the shape, distance, relative size of area, and direction from one area to another.

Distortion on Large Scale vs. Small Scale maps

Small-scale maps have more distortion because a vast area is condensed onto a small space, whereas large-scale maps have less as they represent a smaller area on a larger scale.

Why is the globe the best representation of the Earth?

The Earth is a sphere; thus, only a globe can accurately display the Earth without distorting areas (as a flat map would).

GIS (Geographic Information System)

A computer system that captures, stores, queries, and displays geographic data.

GIScience

    Analysis of data about Earth acquired through satellite and other electronic information technologies.

Remote Sensing

The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a satellite orbiting the planet or from other long-distance methods.

Absolute Location (Mathematical Location) and GPS (Global Positioning System) vs. Relative Location

Absolute location describes a precise geographic position using a fixed coordinate system, such as GPS coordinates or a street address, while relative location describes a place by its relationship to other landmarks, features, or places.

 What is GPS

A system that determines the precise position of something on Earth through a series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers

Toponym

The name of a place (name given to a portion of Earth’s surface.

Site vs. Situation

Physical character (climate, soil elevation..etc) of a place vs the location of a place relative to other places (relative location).

Latitude (Parallel) – Part of Mathematical Location

The numbering system used to indicate the location of parallels drawn on a globe measures distance north and south of the equator.

Equator

The imaginary line around Earth, equidistant from North and South Poles, divides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, 0° parallel of latitude

Longitude (Meridian) – Part of Mathematical Location

The numbering system used to indicate the locations of meridians drawn on a globe and measuring distance east and west of the prime meridian (0°)

Prime Meridian and Greenwich Mean Time

Prime Meridian:  designated as 0° longitude, which passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): Worldwide reference time standard based on when sun crosses Observatory.

International Date Line

Arc, mostly follows 180° longitude. When IDL is crossed heading east (toward America), clock moves back 24hrs, when IDL is crossed heading west (toward Asia) calendar moves ahead 24 hrs.

*Be able to determine Latitude and Longitude

*Be able to determine Latitude and Longitude 

**PRACTICE MAPS

Lat is fat - parallel w/ equator

Long is tall - parallel w/ prime meridian

Regions - give examples

Formal region: Country, climate zone, language groups e.g. U.S.

Functional region: Metropolitan area, delivery zone/radius, transit system e.g. Portland Metro Area, school district

Vernacular Region: People’s popular  perception or shared sense of place e.g. American South, Silicon Valley, Bible Belt

Formal (Uniform) Region

An area in which most people share in one or more distinctive measurable characteristics.

Functional (Nodal) Region

An area organized around a node or focal point.

Vernacular (Perceptual) Region

An area that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity.

Cultural Landscape (Carl Sauer)

Anything built by humans is part of the multitrack landscape. A natural landscape transformed by a cultural group, with culture as the agent and the landscape as the result (approach to geo, emphasizes the relationships among social and physical phenomena in a particular study area).

Culture

The body of customary beliefs. material traits, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people.

Globalization

Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope.

Transnational (multinational) corporation

A company that conducts research, operates factories, and sells products in many countries, not just where its headquarters or shareholders are located.

Globalization of Culture

Exchange and integration of cultural elements: ideas, values, products, and traditions worldwide, driven by advances in communication, technology, and travel.

Scale

The relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole.

Space

The physical gap or interval between two objects.

Distribution

   The arrangement of something across Earth’s surface.

Density

The frequency with which something exists within a given unit of area

 Concentration

  The extent of a feature’s spread over a given area.

Pattern

The geometric or regular arrangement of something in a particular area.

Connections

The relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space

Unequal Access – what does this mean?

The uneven distribution of resources, services, opportunities, and power among different population groups and regions within a society (one group gets access due to privilege, while another does not). *

Uneven Development

The increasing gap in economic conditions between core and peripheral regions as a result of the globalization of the economy.

Resource

A substance in the environment that is useful to people, is economically and technologically feasible to access, and is socially acceptable to use.

Renewable vs. Nonrenewable resource

Renewable resource: Produced in nature more rapidly than it is consumed by humans

Non-renewable resource: Produced in nature more slowly than it is consumed by humans

Sustainability

The use of Earth’s renewable and nonrenewable natural resources in ways that do not constrain resource use in the future.

Conservation

The sustainable management of a natural resource to meet human needs.

Preservation

The maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible.

Abiotic vs. Biotic

Abiotic: composed of nonliving or inorganic matter

Biotic: Composed of living organisms.

Climate

The long-term average weather condition at a particular location

Ecosystems

     A group of living organisms and the abiotic spheres with which they interact.

Erosion and Depletion of nutrients

Processes by which human activities (unsustainable land use practices driven by population growth) degrade soil quality, diminishing its fertility and ability to support life.

Cultural Ecology

A geographic approach that emphasises the relationships among social and physical phenomena in a particular study area.

Environmental Determinism vs. Possibilism

Environmental determinism: theory, human culture, actions, and development are solely determined by physical environmental factors. Possibilism: view, environment provides opportunities and limitations, but human agency, choices, and cultural adaptations largely shape society and land use

Key Issue 1: Why is Geography a Science?

Key Issue 2: Why is each point on Earth unique?

Key Issue 3: Why are different places similar?

Key Issue 4: Why are some actions not sustainable?

Hearth

Place from which an innovation originates.

Diffusion (what types are there?)

The process by which a feature (culture! + ideas) spreads from one place to another over time. Types: Relocation diffusion and Expansion Diffusion.

Relocation Diffusion

The spread of culture and ideas that involves the physical movement of people from one place to another.

Expansion Diffusion (What types are there?

The spread of a feature from one place to another in an additive process. Types: Hierarchical diffusion, contagious diffusion, and stimulus diffusion.

Hierarchical Diffusion

The spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power to other persons or places. e.g. high-fashion trends, celebrity haircuts, brand deals, religion.

Contagious Diffusion

The rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population. e.g. memes, viral videos, popular music genres.

Stimulus Diffusion

The spread of an underlying principle even though a characteristic itself aparrently fails to difuse. e.g. skater clothes w/out being a skater, yoga modified to be non-relgious for Westerners, restaurant chains modifying menu in different countries.

Space-Time Compression

Reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place.

Distance Decay

Trailing-off phenomenon of diminishing contact with an increase in distance. (Spatial interaction → The farther away someone is from you, the less likely you are to interact.

Mercator Projection

Good for navigation w/ straight lines (cylindrical projection)

Lat and long lines equally spaces

Distorts area and size, particularly near poles

Countries near equator look smaller

Distances not real or accurate

Robinson Projection

Compromise between shape, area, size, distance (distribution)

Balanced but imperfect (pseudo-cylinder)

Straight parallel lat lines and curved long lines

Better for seeing human population distribution

MDC (More Developed Country)

Country with high degree of economic growth and security, with a strong, diversified economy. High GDP per capita, life expectancy, resource access, literacy rates, health care access. e.g. U.S., Japan, most Western Euro nations.

LDC (Less Developed Country)

Country in the process of industrialization and has a lower standard of living (most disadvantaged) economies often dependent on agriculture or raw materials, limited access to capital, Lower life expectancy, and education rates. Higher infant mortality rates and vulnerability to economic and environmental shocks. e.g. Afghanistan, Cambodia, Ethiopia.

GDP & GDP per capita

Gross Domestic Production- The tot monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period, indicates economic activity.

GDP per capita- Divides the total GDP by the country's population. Offers a measure of the avg economic output or income per person (provides way to estimate national standard of living)

Overpopulation

When an area’s population exceeds the capacity of the environment to support it at an acceptable standard of living.

How are humans distributed across Earth’s surface?

Nonuniformly

How do concentration and density relate to population distribution?

Population density measures the average number of people per unit of area, while population distribution describes the pattern of where people live within that area (number vs spread)

Census

A complete enumeration of a population. ((enumeration: mentioning things 1 by 1/numbering off) an official count or survey of a population, typically recording various details of individuals.)

The four major population clusers

East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

Ecumene

The portion of Earths surface occupied by permanent human settlement.

What are the 4 sparsely populated regions?

Cold lands, high lands, dry lands, and wet lands. ***

Population Density

The frequency with which something exists within a given unit of area.

Arithmetic Density

The total number of objects in an area. Refers to the tot # of ppl divided by the tot land area. (Shows comparison btwn # of ppl living in different regions of the world)

Physiological Density

Number of ppl per area of a certain type of land in a region -provides more meaningful pop measure. Refers to number of ppl per unit area of arable land. (Shows the capacity of the land to yield enough food for the needs of the people)

Arable land

Land suited for agriculture. E.g. not too dry or cold, temperate. Not too high up or moist, situated conveniently.

Agricultural Density

Relationship btwn pop and resources in a country (physiological and agricultural densities together!) The ratio of the number of farmers to the amount of arabe land. (Helps account for economic differences)

Developed countries have lower agricultural densities bc tech and finance allow less ppl to farm extensive land areas and feed many ppl.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

The tot # of live births in a year for every 1,000 ppl alive in the society. Annual # of births per 1,000 pop.

Mirrors distribution of NIR. Highest CBRs in sub-Saharan Africa, lowest CBRs in Europe.

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

The tot # of deaths in a year for every 1,000 ppl alive in the society. Annual # of deaths per 1,000 pop.

Doesnt follow the same regional pattern as the NIR and CBR. Combined CDR for developing countries lower than combined rate for all developed countries. Variation btwn worlds highest and lowest CDRs much less extreme than variation in CBRs.

Natural Increase Rate (NIR)

The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate (CBR-CDR)

Doubling Time

The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase.

A large percentage of the NIR is centered in….

Developing countries. 95% is clustered in developing countries. 66% in Asia, 20% in sub-Saharan Africa, 9% in Latin America..etc…

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The average # of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (15-49). To compute, you assume a woman reaching a particular age in the future will be just as likely to have a child as are women of that age today.

Measures the number of births in a society.

Mortality

The # of deaths in a population. Developed countries have better life expectancies-lower mortality rates. Developing countries have higher rates due to lack of equal resources and access to healthcare services.

Population Pyramids

A population pyramid is a graph that shows the age and sex distribution of a population (at specific time/place). Its shape offers a quick summary of key demographic trends, including birth rates, death rates, and life expectancy. 

Demographic Transition

The process of change in a society’s population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to  condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and higher total population

Demographic Transition Model

5 stages (5th is newest)

1: LOW GROWTH

2: HIGH GROWTH

3: MODERATE GROWTH

4: LOW GROWTH

Stage 1

LOW GROWTH:

Very high CBR

Very high CDR

Very low NIR

Both birth and death rates are high, resulting in slow, fluctuating population growth. 

Most of human history spent in this stage bc pre-industrial.

NO COUNTRY REMAINS in this stage now, except for remote islands untouched by modern settlement. e.g North Sentinel Island.,

Stage 2

HIGH GROWTH:

Still high CBR

Rapidly Declining CDR

Very high NIR

Birth rates remain high, but death rates fall rapidly due to improvements in public health. Causes significant increase in pop growth. 

Euro and America entered this phase after 1750 as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Did not diffuse to Africa, Asia, Latin America until 1950 (medical revolution). Poorest countries. e.g. Congo, Niger, Yemen, Afghanistan, Pakistan.

The introduction of modern medicine, better sanitation, and increased food supply lowers mortality, especially infant mortality. 

Stage 3

MODERATE GROWTH:

Rapidly declining CBR

Moderately declining CDR

Moderate NIR

(CBR DROPS but still higher than CDR) Birth rates begin to fall, leading to a slower but still positive rate of population growth. 

People have fewer children. Social and economic changes-country industrializes and urbanizes. Incr contraception acccess, higher educ for women, inc fem in workforce, lower need for large families for labor or as a form of old-age security. 

e.g. Mexico, India, Colombia, South Africa, Brazil, and the United Arab Emirates.

Stage 4

LOW GROWTH:

Very low CBR

Low or slightly increasing CDR

0 or negative NIR

Both birth and death rates are low and roughly equal, resulting in a stable or very slow population growth rate. 

The same factors that led to a decrease in birth rates in Stage 3 continue to influence family size, such as economic development, women's empowerment, and the high cost of raising children. 

Most of the developed world, including the United States, Canada, and European countries in this stage. 

Stage 5

DECLINING GROWTH:

Very low CBR

Low CDR

Decling NIR

This is a potential stage not present in all models, where birth rates fall below death rates, resulting in a shrinking population. 

A combination of continued low birth rates and an aging population (where there are more elderly people) can lead to a natural decrease in population. 

Some countries such as Italy, Japan, entering this phase (old ppl surplus, no babies being born)

Zero Population Growth

A decline of the total fertility rate to the point where the natural increase rate equals zero (0).

ZPG may occur when CBR still slightly higher than CDR bc some fem die before reaching childbearing yrs and # of fem in childbearing yrs can vary.

Typcially seen in stage 4. (also 5)

What role did the Industrial Revolution have on the Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

Caused Europe and North America to enter Stage 2 in 1750 by improving living conditions, leading to declining death rates. Began in the UK in late 18th century (1700s) and diffused to the Euro continent and North America during 19th century (1800s)

Conjunction of major improvements in manufacturing goods and delivering them to market. Resulted in unprecedented level of weath, some of which used to better communities

Medical Revolution

Diffused stage 2 of Demographic Transition Model (DTM) to Africa, Asia, and Latin America around 1950.

DEF: A period of medical technology diffusion (mainly from Europe/North America) that reduced death rates in LDCs.

ROLE: Pushed developing countries into stage 2 by lowering CDR (better healthcare).

Medical tech invented in Europe and North America has diffused to developing countries and eliminated many traditional death causes.