Hard Objectives Exam 4 Study Guide

External Respiration

Gas exchange between alveoli and blood

Internal Respiration

Gas exchange between blood and tissues

Oxygen movement (external)

Alveoli to blood

Carbon dioxide movement (external)

Blood to alveoli

Oxygen movement (internal)

Blood to tissues

Carbon dioxide movement (internal)

Tissues to blood

CO2 bound to hemoglobin

23%

CO2 dissolved in plasma

7%

CO2 as bicarbonate

70%

Oxygen bound to hemoglobin

98.5%

Oxygen dissolved in plasma

1.5%

Dalton's Law

Total pressure equals sum of individual gas pressures

Henry's Law

Gas dissolves in liquid based on partial pressure

Boyle's Law

Pressure and volume are inversely related

Haldane Effect

Hemoglobin binds CO2 better when not bound to O2

Respiratory membrane thickness

About 0.5 micrometers

Glomerular Capillary Pressure (GCP)

Pushes fluid into filtrate

Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)

Pressure from fluid in Bowman's capsule

Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)

Pulls water back into blood

Apical surface

Side facing filtrate

Basal surface

Side facing interstitial fluid

Aldosterone

Increases sodium reabsorption

Main driver of reabsorption

Active transport of sodium

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Site of most reabsorption

Descending loop of Henle

Water leaves, filtrate becomes concentrated

Ascending loop of Henle

Solutes leave, filtrate becomes dilute

Ascending limb permeability

Not permeable to water

Parasympathetic stimulation

Increases ureter frequency

Sympathetic stimulation

Decreases ureter frequency

Hydrostatic pressure (urine)

Moves urine through nephron

Peristalsis

Moves urine through ureters

Deglutition (swallowing)

Movement of food from mouth to stomach

Oral phase

Voluntary movement to oropharynx

Pharyngeal phase

Involuntary reflex, closes airway

Esophageal phase

Peristalsis moves bolus to stomach

Cephalic phase

Triggered by sight, smell, taste

Gastric phase

Triggered by food in stomach

Intestinal phase

Slows stomach when chyme enters duodenum

Secretin

Reduces stomach acid

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Slows gastric emptying and aids digestion

Mucous cells

Secrete mucus

Parietal cells

Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor

HCl functions

Kills microbes, denatures proteins, activates pepsin

Intrinsic factor

Helps absorb vitamin B12

Chief cells

Secrete pepsinogen

Pepsin

Breaks down proteins

Absorptive cells

Absorb nutrients and produce enzymes

Goblet cells

Secrete mucus

Disaccharidases

Break down sugars

Peptidases

Break down proteins

Nucleases

Break down nucleic acids

Brush border enzymes

Digest nutrients on microvilli

Small intestine function

Mixes, moves, and absorbs chyme

Liver function

Produces bile, processes nutrients, detoxifies

Bile

Helps digest fats

Pancreas

Secretes enzymes and bicarbonate

Pancreatic enzymes

Digest proteins, carbs, fats, nucleic acids

Activation of pancreatic enzymes

Enterokinase and trypsin

Diploid cells (2n)

Two sets of chromosomes

Haploid cells (n)

One set of chromosomes

Somatic cells

Diploid body cells

Gametes

Haploid sperm and egg

Chromosomes in somatic cells

46 total

Homologous pairs

One set from each parent

Sister chromatids

Identical halves joined by centromere

Interphase

DNA replication phase

Meiosis

Produces haploid gametes

Meiosis I

Reduces chromosome number

Meiosis II

Produces haploid cells

Meiosis result

Four genetically different cells

GnRH

Stimulates LH and FSH release

LH

Stimulates testosterone production

FSH

Stimulates sperm development

Inhibin

Inhibits FSH

hCG

Stimulates fetal testosterone

Chemicals in erection

Acetylcholine and nitric oxide

Meiosis I (female)

Unequal cytoplasm division

Products of Meiosis I

Secondary oocyte and polar body

Polar body

Degenerates

Meiosis II completion

Only if fertilization occurs

Primordial follicle

Surrounds primary oocyte

Zona pellucida

Surrounds oocyte

Cumulus oophorus

Surrounds oocyte in mature follicle

Antrum

Fluid-filled space in follicle

Follicular phase

Follicle development before ovulation

Proliferative phase

Endometrium rebuilds

Secretory phase

Endometrium thickens and secretes

Corpus luteum

Secretes progesterone and estrogen

If pregnancy occurs

Corpus luteum remains active

If no pregnancy

Becomes corpus albicans

Corpus albicans

Scar tissue on ovary