PSYCH 211 (Exam 3)

Childhood neglect (operant conditioning terms)

behavior does not elicit any consequences due to lack of interaction and has little impact on the environment around the child

Possible consequences of neglect in child development

Little operant learning occurs. Typical development relies on operant learning, so neglected children typically fall behind in development

How does operant conditioning influence language development?

a baby’s early vocal behavior has an effect on their environment when their parents respond, smile, or praise them, acting as reinforcement. Parents later choose sounds to reinforce as they approximate language

How does operant conditioning influence effort and persistence?

when children are positively reinforced for persisting in the face of challenges, they are more likely to be diligent and put more effort into what they do

Consequences of reprimand over praise in education

doesn’t give students a reason to perform good behavior, decreases self-esteem and can increase defiance

Why do teachers reprimand more than praise?

teaching the way they were taught, fear and insecurity, frustration/overwhelmed and needing immediate results

What made Skinner’s machines produce such positive learning outcomes?

kept learners active rather than passive and immediate feedback and progress reinforced students and led them to want to learn and reach completion

Alternative to punishment for controlling self-injurious behavior

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior

Research example (self-injurious behavior)

Tarpley and Schroeder periodically provided food to a boy as he played steadily with a ball. While playing with the ball, he couldn’t hit himself

Delusions

a fixed, false behavior belief resistant to reason and evidence

Operant conditioning’s role in delusions

delusional behavior often results in a reaction from family, friends, and medical professionals. These actions (especially comfort and concern) can reinforce the behavior

Goldiamond’s Paradox

abnormal behavior must be maintained even when reinforcement is unavailable to avoid signalling that the behavior is a manipulative tactic

Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy

the restriction of movement of a healthy/normal limb or body part and reinforcing the use of a defective limb to recover use of that limb

Why is constraint-induced movement therapy effective?

When a limb is defective, it often hurts to use. If a person/animal doesn’t use it because it hurts, it will not recover. If the functional limb is restrained, the defective limb must be used to attain the reinforcement of completing tasks, thus strengthening it

How can reinforcement increase work productivity?

When employers offer feedback alongside bonuses for performances, productivity increases

How can reinforcement decrease work-related accidents?

If feedback, bonuses, time off, and other reinforcers are given for following safety protocol, following that protocol will increase

How is operant learning used in veterinary care?

operant conditioning used in place of restraints and aversives, holding less risk and being more humane. For example, conditioning an elephant to put her foot through a hole to remove calluses

How can operant conditioning improve animals’ quality of life?

animals in zoos can be reinforced if food is spread throughout their enclosure, simulating the foraging behaviors found in their natural environment

Social Learning

Learning from the observation of a model and the consequences of the model’s behavior

Asocial Learning

Learning from the observation of events and their consequences in the absence of a model

Vicarious Reinforcement

An increase in the strength of an observed behavior following reinforcement of that behavior in a model

Vicarious Punishment

A decrease in the strength of an observed behavior following punishment of that behavior in a model

Imitation

Behaving in a manner identical to the behavior of a model

Generalized Imitation

The tendency to imitate modeled behavior even though the imitative behavior is not reinforced

Over Imitation

The tendency of observers to imitate acts by a model that are irrelevant to obtaining reinforcement

Emulation

Copying the goal of a behavior but achieving it in a slightly different way

4 theories of why humans over imitate

has benefits such as ensuring success, evolved because it facilitates the dissemination of new practices throughout a society, evolved before the capacity for true observational learning, children and infants are rewarded for it and learn it

Difficulty of the task

Observing a model perform a difficult task improves the likelihood of success more than observing a model performing an easy task

Skilled vs. unskillled model

In skilled modeling, the observer can imitate success. In unskilled modeling, the observer sees both what works and what does not and can learn from the model’s mistakes and successes

Characteristics of the model

People learn better from attractive, likeable, and prestigious models or models that attract attention (such as wearing an eyepatch or being in a bad/good mood)

Characteristics of the observer

Humans, apes, and dogs learn more by observing than many other species. Developmental age, gender, visual + hearing abilities also play a role

Consequences of the observed acts

children who saw adults praised for aggression engaged in more aggression than those who saw the model sometimes praised and sometimes criticized

Consequences of the observer’s behavior

If observing pays off we tend to spend more time doing so; if it does not pay off, we tend to stop learning by observation for that task

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

cognitive processes, or things going on inside a person, account for learning from models. This theory identifies four kinds of cognitive processes: attentional, retentional, motor-reproductive, and motivational

Attentional Processes

the directing of attention to the relevant aspects of a model’s behavior and its consequences

Retentional Processes

Representing a model’s behavior in a way that aids recall

Motor-Reproductive Processes

Using the representations formed during retention to perform a modeled behavior

Motivational processes

The expectation that a modeled behavior will be reinforced

Operant Learning Module

The view that observational learning is a variation of operant learning, including the effect of the environment on behavior, the acts the observer performs, the process of engaging in the behavior, and learning history

What is the major criticism of Bandura’s Theory?

It doesn’t lend itself well to science because cognitive processes are not easily measured or verified

Examples of observational learning in education

acquiring a first language, classroom learning, attentiveness, practical skills

Examples of observational learning in social change (nonhumans)

naive guppies following trained peers to find food, monkeys spreading washing sand-covered sweet potatoes, monkeys spreading flossing to others and their infants, chimps using tools

Examples of observational learning inn social change (humans)

modeling healthier eating, exercise, fictional models in TV and movies, edutainment

Tanesha saw a hair style she loved in a magazine, but her hair was too short for the look. So she purchased some hair extensions and brought the picture to her hairdresser who achieved the same look for her.

emulation

Robert aspires to be an Elvis impersonator. He is working on perfecting his voice, mannerisms, stage presence, and wardrobe. He has even cut and dyed his hair to look like Elvis and had cosmetic procedures to look more like Elvis

imitation

Peter took a ride in his friend’s new car and really liked it. A year later he bought the same car, only black instead of blue and with a sun roof.

emulation

Constance wants to make her grandmother’s famous apple pie. She goes to buy the ingredients and had to go to three stores to get the exact brand of butter and flour her grandmother used for the apple pie.

over imitation

Geneva loves the new Prada handbag that has come out, but she cannot afford to buy it. So she goes to the downtown street market and buys a knockoff of the same bag.

emulation

Yesenia inherited the nativity scene from her mother that was always up at Christmas time. In setting up the scene with her daughter, Yesenia instructed her not only on the figures but how to place them exactly as they had been placed in the scene in her childhood.

over imitation

The Browns live in a small subdivision of about two dozen homes in a 55 and over community of villas. They put up their outdoor lights for the holidays and the neighborhood liked it so much that they all went and purchased the same lights and decorated their homes in the same fashion for the holidays.

imitation

Stimulus Generalization

showing the learned response to any similar stimuli (ex. boy mistaken for a seal)

Stimulus Discrimination

the tendency for behavior to occur in certain situations and not others or the ability to differentiate between specific stimuli and not respond to similar stimuli

Stimulus Control

When a specific stimulus reliably predicts behavior

Vicarious Generalization

generalization across people (i.e. prejudice)

Response Maintenance

generalization across time (i.e. good table manners in many situations)

Response Generalization

generalization across behaviors (i.e. rat gets food when he presses bar regardless if it is pressed with chin, paws, etc.)

Stimulus Generalization

generalization across stimuli (i.e. crying in any situation where you get hurt)

Enhanced generalization

may be enhanced by training in a wide variety of settings, providing lots of examples, varying consequences, reinforcing generalization in different situations

What are the 4 problems with generalization?

hate crimes, tendency to give up, inflating problem behaviors, generalized behavior when interacting with dangerous animals

Generalization gradient

A figure that provides graphic representation of generalization data, particularly the response of a subject to stimuli depending on how far they are from the original stimulus

Simultaneous Discrimination

When the discriminative stimulus is present along with the stimulus that is rewarded

Successive Discrimination

randomly alternating the stimulus that does not receive reinforcement with the one that does

Matching to Sample

A discrimination training procedure in which the task is to select from two or more comparison stimuli the one that matches a sample

Oddity Matching

A variation of matching to sample in which reinforcement is available for selecting the comparison stimulus that is different from the sample

Errorless Discrimination

the unreinforced stimulus is presented in a weak form for a short duration. Gradually the intensity and duration are increased

Differential Outcome Effect (DOE)

the finding that discrimination training proceeds more rapidly when different behaviors produce different reinforcers

Concept Formation: Generalization

People learn a group or category or concept by generalizing defining features (i.e. teaching a kid the concept of “dog”)

Concept Formation: Discrimination

People learn to distinguish similar concepts from each other or distinguish members of the same group (i.e. teaching a kid to distinguish a dog from a cat)

Concept Formation: Stimulus Control

People can reliably generalize with classes and discriminate between them (i.e. child can now reliably distinguish cats and dogs and recognize different breeds as such)

Addiction: Generalization

A person takes an addictive substance and it makes them feel good; this leads to generalization as they experiment with more drugs

Addiction: Discrimination

certain environmental factors act as discriminative stimuli for doing drugs or drinking

Addiction: Stimulus Control

A person who has quit an addictive substance must retrain their mind not to perform addictive behaviors in certain situations; when achieved they have experienced stimulus control

Pavlovian Theory of Generalization/Discrimination

discrimination training produces physiological changes in the brain, establishing an area of excitation associated with the CS+ stimulus and an area of inhibition associated with the CS-

Problem with Pavlov’s Theory

Circular and didn’t lend itself well to science (using behavior to explain biology to explain behavior)

Spence’s Theory of Generalization/Discrimination

keeps Pavlov’s notions of excitation and inhibition, establishing an excitatory and inhibitory gradient

Excitatory Gradient

A generalization gradient showing an increased tendency to respond to the S^D or CS+ and stimuli resembling it

Inhibitory Gradient

A generalization gradient showing a decreased tendency to respond to the S^delta or CS- and stimuli resembling it

Peak Shift

tendency following discrimination training for peak of responding to shift away from the S^delta or CS-

Lashley-Wade Theory

generalization gradients depend on prior experience with stimuli similar to those used in testing

Lashley-Wade Theory Controversy

conflicting evidence, unsure why/when it occurs

Why has the storage memory for memory lost credence?

Doesn’t explain forgetting or take into account that memory is highly malleable and are a reconstructive process

Forgetting

Deterioration in learned behavior following a retention interval

Declarative Memory

Memory of events that can be expressed, usually in words. Includes semantic and episodic memory

Nondeclarative memory

Memory of things that cannot be expressed, at least not in words. Includes procedural memory

Episodic Memory

Memory of life events

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts about the world

Procedural Memory

Memory for procedures; the ability to perform a set of actions

Free Recall

A method of measuring forgetting that consists of providing the opportunity to perform the learned behavior

Prompted Recall

A method of measuring forgetting in which hints (prompts) about the behavior to be performed are provided

Relearning

A method in which a behavior is learned to criterion before and after a retention interval

Recognition

A method in which the subject is required to identify stimuli experienced earlier

Delayed Matching to Sample

A method in which the opportunity to match a sample follows a retention interval

Extinction

A method by comparing the rate of extinction after the retention interval with the rate of extinction immediately after training

Gradient Degradation

A method in which a behavior is tested for generalization before and after a retention interval. A flattening of the gradient indicates forgetting

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

demonstrates that you receive information quickly when you first learn it but it tapers off over time. Subsequent reviews, however, cause you to forget more slowly

Gagne’s Research

Results showing that longer intervals between training and relearning led to more forgetting in rats

McGeoch’s Response

Results showing rats’ failure to pause after reinforcement on an FI schedule after a retention interval. Argues that forgetting is not strictly based in time

How does overlearning compensate for forgetting?

Overlearning continues the process of learning after mastery, making it less likely for a person to forget something over time

Proactive Interference

Forgetting caused by learning that occurred prior to the behavior in question

Retroactive Interference

Forgetting caused by learning that occurred subsequent to the behavior in question