Collective Behaviour - Week 10

What three theories are introduced as the foundations of crowd behavior?

Contagion Theory, Social Identity Theory, and Emergent Norm Theory.

What is the purpose of introducing the foundations of crowd behavior theories in the lecture?

To introduce the main theoretical foundations used to explain crowd behavior.

Who is associated with Contagion Theory?

Gustave Le Bon.

What is the core idea of Contagion Theory?

Emotions and behaviors spread rapidly through crowds, causing people to act differently than they would alone.

According to Gustave Le Bon, what can crowds do to individual behavior?

Cause individuals to act in ways they normally would not when alone.

What does anonymity mean in Contagion Theory?

Crowds dissolve individual responsibility and reduce self-awareness.

Name two effects of anonymity in crowds according to Gustave Le Bon.

Increased impulsiveness and lowered inhibition.

What sense can anonymity create in a crowd according to Contagion Theory?

A sense of invulnerability.

What is suggestibility in Contagion Theory?

The tendency of crowd members to absorb ideas from leaders or the crowd without critical judgment.

According to Gustave Le Bon, what replaces logical reasoning in crowds?

Emotional resonance.

According to Contagion Theory, what kind of leaders can strongly influence the crowd?

Strong, charismatic leaders.

What is the core mechanism of Contagion Theory?

Emotional contagion.

What kinds of emotions spread quickly in crowds according to Gustave Le Bon?

Fear, anger, and enthusiasm.

How did Gustave Le Bon describe emotional contagion in crowds?

Automatic, unconscious, and strong enough to override rational thought.

What field did Contagion Theory help inspire?

Early social psychology.

What are two concepts influenced by Contagion Theory?

Mass hysteria and rumor spread.

How was Contagion Theory used beyond academia?

Political leaders used it to understand mass persuasion.

How did Contagion Theory influence emergency management thinking?

It helped create the assumption that crowds panic during emergencies.

What caution does Contagion Theory provide to modern emergency management?

Authorities should be careful not to misinterpret crowd behavior.

What area of emergency management thinking does Contagion Theory still affect today?

Information and messaging.

According to Social Identity Theory, people partly define themselves through what?

Group memberships.

According to Social Identity Theory, what shapes norms and expectations?

In-groups.

When does identity become especially salient according to Social Identity Theory?

During crises.

What commonly creates expanded social identity in disasters according to Social Identity Theory?

Shared fate.

Name two outcomes of shared identity in disasters.

Cooperation and mutual aid.

What kind of leadership can emerge from shared identity in disasters?

Informal leadership.

According to Social Identity Theory, how should emergency communication be framed?

To foster unity rather than control.

In emergency management, how should public behavior be viewed according to Social Identity Theory?

As an asset, not a liability.

According to Social Identity Theory, what does response effectiveness depend on?

Perceived legitimacy.

Who developed Emergent Norm Theory?

Turner and Killian.

When was Emergent Norm Theory developed?

1957.

What does Emergent Norm Theory argue happens in disrupted situations?

New norms emerge through social interaction.

According to Emergent Norm Theory, how do people figure out how to act in crowds?

They look to others for cues about appropriate behavior.

What three things do disasters disrupt according to Emergent Norm Theory?

Routine social structures, institutional authority, and normalized expectations.

Do norms disappear in crises according to Emergent Norm Theory?

No, they are renegotiated through interaction.

Name two behaviors Emergent Norm Theory helps explain in disasters.

Prosocial behavior and emergent groups.

What disaster myth does Emergent Norm Theory help challenge?

The myth of panic and looting.

What does Emergent Norm Theory say about convergence in disasters?

It helps explain it as part of disaster behavior.

What creates shared social identity in collective resilience models?

Common fate during disasters.

What behaviors are the norm in collective resilience models?

Cooperation and mutual support.

What is collective resilience based on?

Existing or newly formed social ties.

According to collective resilience models, what should emergency managers build with the public?

Shared identity.

According to collective resilience models, how should officials communicate?

Clearly and respectfully.

What assumption should emergency managers avoid according to collective resilience models?

Assuming panic or helplessness.

What is the bottom line of collective resilience models?

Crowds are often the solution, not the problem.

What is the difference between plunder and loot in disaster looting behavior?

Plunder suggests systematic, violent seizure, often by military force, while loot usually refers to the goods taken or opportunistic stealing during riots or disasters.

What public myth exists about looting during disasters?

That many homes and stores will be plundered during disasters.

Does research suggest that disaster looting is commonly exaggerated in public belief?

Yes, it introduces the public myth that widespread plundering happens during disasters.

Why does studying looting behavior in disasters matter?

It challenges common myths and reveals how social structure shapes behavior under stress.

What practical areas can be better informed by studying looting behavior?

Policies, priorities, and response strategies.

What two broader issues does studying looting behavior help us understand?

Legitimacy and survival.

How can perceptions of looting affect disaster response strategies?

They can shape response strategies, sometimes in harmful ways.

Name two consequences of looting fears after Hurricane Katrina.

Heavy securitization and delayed aid distribution.

What might some behavior labeled as “looting” actually reflect during disasters?

Survival behavior, such as obtaining food or medicine when systems fail.

What can shift during crises in relation to property and behavior norms?

Social norms, property rights, and moral boundaries.

What is one consequence of public belief in looting myths during disasters?

Public fear of looting.

How do looting myths affect local law enforcement priorities?

They place pressure on law enforcement to ensure security.

How can looting myths affect evacuation behavior?

People may delay or avoid evacuation advisories because they fear looting.

Is looting more common in civil disturbances or natural disasters?

Civil disturbances.

In natural disasters, is looting usually group-based or solitary?

Solitary.

How is looting usually carried out in civil disturbances?

Openly, publicly, and often in small groups.

How is looting in natural disasters usually described?

Rare, covert, and secret.

Is evacuation behavior during disasters irrational or socially structured?

No, it is socially structured.

What did Quarantelli say about evacuation behavior?

It is patterned and socially organized.

What did Dynes say disaster behavior reflects?

Existing social structures.

What did Tierney say about protective action decisions?

They are socially embedded.

Is panic common in evacuation behavior during disasters?

No, panic is rare.

What do most people do before evacuating during disasters?

They seek confirmation.

What strongly influences evacuation decision-making during disasters?

Social networks.

Do people usually evacuate alone during disasters?

No, they usually evacuate in groups.

What matters more than fear appeals in evacuation decision-making?

Warning credibility.

Is evacuation a moment or a process in disaster response behavior?

A process.

What is usually the first step in evacuation decision-making?

Receiving a warning.

What do people often do after receiving a warning?

Confirm with others.

What two things do people evaluate before deciding whether to evacuate?

Personal risk and available resources.

What disaster is commonly used to explain differential evacuation and inequality?

Hurricane Katrina (2005).

Evacuation depends not only on willingness but also on what factor?

Ability.

Name two barriers to evacuation identified in disaster research.

Poverty constraints and car ownership disparities.

How can pet policies affect evacuation decisions?

They can create barriers that make evacuation harder.

What is unnecessary evacuation in disaster response behavior?

Movement of people from a location when evacuation is not required for their safety.

When can unnecessary evacuation happen?

When there is no real threat or when official evacuation orders are misunderstood, overly broad, or poorly communicated.

Does unnecessary evacuation always mean people are acting irrationally?

No, it can result from communication problems or perceived risk.

What systems can unnecessary evacuation overwhelm during disasters?

Transportation systems, shelters, and emergency services.

Name two dangers unnecessary evacuation can expose people to during disasters.

Traffic accidents and lack of access to medical care.

What personal and social costs can unnecessary evacuation create during disasters?

Emotional stress, economic loss, and disruption of essential services.

What is the main concern with unnecessary evacuation during disasters?

It can create avoidable dangers and strain emergency systems.

What is one cause of unnecessary evacuation during disasters?

Misinterpreting warning information.

How can social influence contribute to unnecessary evacuation decisions during disasters?

People may leave because relatives or friends are evacuating.

What kinds of unofficial sources can encourage unnecessary evacuation?

Relatives, friends, coworkers, and neighbors.

Besides warning confusion, what belief can lead people to evacuate unnecessarily?

The belief that their area or home is risky.

Where do most disaster evacuees seek refuge according to previous research findings?

In the homes of relatives or friends.

What was the most common evacuation destination in Drabek’s findings?

A relative’s home.

What percentage of evacuees went to a friend’s home during evacuation?

31%.

What percentage of evacuees went to a public shelter during evacuation?

7%.

Are public shelters the main destination for most evacuees during disasters?

No, most evacuees stay with relatives or friends.

What is the most common evacuation transportation method during disasters?

Family vehicle.

What percentage of evacuees used official transportation during evacuation?

13%.

What percentage of evacuees used a friend’s vehicle during evacuation?

7%.

What percentage of evacuees used a relative’s vehicle during evacuation?

6%.

Is walking a common evacuation method during disasters?

No, it is rare.