Bio Final

Biodiversity

The variety of living things - plants, animals, fungi, and the ecosystems they form

Systematics

The scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships.

Taxonomy

The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms based on shared characteristics, typically organized into a heirarchy

Taxon (taxa)

A named group of organisms at any level of biological classification - such as a species, genus, or family

Classification

The systematic process of arranging items, data, or organisms into groups or categories based on shared characteristics

Phylogeny

The study of evolutionary history and relationships among species or a group of organisms, tracing their descent from common ancestors

Root, node, clade

Root- is the ancestral population from which all species originate

Node- signifies a branching point representing a ancestor that diverged into two or more lineage

Clade- A clade is a group consisting of an ancestor and all of its descendants

Binomial Nomenclature (how should it be written)

The genus and the species both italisized or underlined if hand-written

Genus is also capitalized and species is always lowercase

Why should we use scientific names instead of common names to communicate effectively

They provide us with a universal language that can be understood by everyone and reducing confusion with multiple of the same name

Hierarchical classification system

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Linnaean Classification vs. Phylogeny

Linnaean Classification is a hierarchical system used to categorize organisms based on shared physical characteristics, while Phylogeny focuses on the evolutionary relationships among species, mapping their lineage through common ancestry.

Homologous

Homologous - Biological features such as limbs or genes that share a common ancestor regardless of their current function

Analogous

Analogous - Structures that are similar in two species despite having different origins

Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species independently evolve similar traits to adapt to comparable environmental pressures driven by natural selection

Monophyletic

Includes and ancestor and all of its descendants

Paraphyletic

Includes an ancestor and only some of it descendants

Polyphyletic

Distantly related organisms but not their ancestor

Shared Derived Characters

Unique characters inherited from a common ancestor that are shared by two or more species within a specific group (clade)

General structures of Prokaryotes

Nucleoid (circular DNA), ribosomes, plasma membrane, rigid cell wall, composed of pepidoglycan. Capsules, flagella, pilli

Gram Positive vs. Gram Negative

Gram positive - purple, thick wall

Gram negative - pink, thin wall, have an outer membrane

Capsules

A dense, sticky layer, that protects

Fimbriae

Short, hair-like appendages used for attachment

Endospores

Highly resistant, dormant structures, that allow bacteria to survive in harsh conditions

Biofilms

Bacteria surrounded by a slimy extracellular matrix that protects them from dehydration and chemical threats

Binary Fission

A rapid form of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotes where a single organism replicates its DNA and splits into two identical daughter cells

Transformation, Transduction, Conjugation

Transformation - Involves the uptake of naked DNA from the environment

Transduction - Uses viruses to transfer DNA between bacteria

Conjugation - Direct cell-to-cell contact via a sex pilus

Obligate Aerobe, Obligate Anaerobe, Facultative Anaerobe, Microaerophile

Obligate Aerobe - needs oxygen to live

Obligate Anaerobe - Does not need oxygen to survive

Facultative Anaerobe - Uses oxygen but can live without it

Microaerophile - Require low levels of oxygen

Helicobactor Pylori

A bacteria that infects the stomach

From contaminated food or water

Streptococcus, Staphlococcus aureus

Gram-positive, spherical bacteria (cocci) Causes strep throat

A common bacteria found on the skin or in the nose, causes boils, From cuts or wounds

Treponema Pallidum, Borrelia burgdorferi

A spiral shaped bacteria that causes syphilis - STD

Spiral shaped bacteria, causes lyme disease - tick born illness

Archean Species in Harsh environments

Halophiles - Thrive in extremely salty environments

Thermophiles - Thrive in extreme high temperatures

Symbiosis

A close, long-term interaction between two different species

Mutualism, Commensalism, parasitism

Both species benefit, often relying on each other for survival

One organism benefits while the other one is not being helped nor harmed

One organism benefits by feeding on, living in, a host organism causing it harm

Hypertonic, isotonic, Hypotonic

Higher solution concentration outside the cell compare to inside. Water flows out of the cell causing it to shrink/shrivel

Similar solute concentration as the cell/body fluids. No net movement

Lower solute concentration outside the cell. Water flows into the cell causing it to swell or burst

Protists

A diverse group of mostly single-celled, eukaryotic organisms that do not fit into the fungi, plant, or animal kingdoms

Endosymbiosis

A type of symbiosis where one organism lives inside the body or host of another

Trypanosoma

Causes sleeping sickness or Chagas disease

Transmitted by blood-feeding insects

Plasmodium

Causes Malaria in humans

Humans are the intermediate host (asexual phase) - Takes place in the liver -red blood cells

Mosquito Host (Sexual phase) - Takes place in the intestine

Specialized structures of Brown Algae Holdfast, stipe, blades

Holdfast - root-like anchor that holds it down

Stipe - Acts likes the stalk or stem

Blade - Leaf-like

Red Algae

Rhodophyta (red seaweed)

Green Algae

Chlorophyta

Divides into Chlorophytes - Larger more diverse, mostly found in freshwater

Charaphytes - Sister group to land plants

Slime molds

Are eukaryotic protists that consume bacteria and fungi acting as decomposers in damp environments

Two types: Plasmodial slime molds: Single, large, multi-nucleated cell

Cellular slime molds: Individual amoebas

Entamoebas

Causes abdominal pain, diarhea, and bloody stool

it invades intestinal lining, causing ulcers, and can spread through the bloodstream to form abscesses in the liver

How do fungi retrieve nutrients and how do they grow?

Through absorption nutrition, secreting digestive enzymes into their surrounding to break down organic matter externally before absorbing nutrients

They grow by extending thread-like filaments called hyphae

Hyphae, mycelium, fruiting body, and spores

Tiny, tubular, filaments that form the basic structural units of fungi

The vast hidden network formed by branching hyphae acting as the main nutrient absorbing body

A reproductive structure formed when the mycelium collects enough energy to reproduce; made of densely packed hyphae

Microscopic reproductive cells produced by the fruiting body

What are the sexual and asexual modes of reproduction in fungi?

Asexual is most common using spores, budding, or fragmentation

Sexual is most common in mating types, plasmogamy, and karyogamy

Fungi are most related to which eukaryotic group

Animals because they share the most recent common ancestor

Both belong to Opisthokonta

Parasitic Fungi and the impacts on animals

Chytrids - Mostly aquatic fungi known for their zoospores and being decomposers

Causes an infectious disease that affects animals skin

Why are mycorrhizae and lichen so important

Their symbiotic relationship drive ecosystem health and plant survival

M: An extension of plant roots increasing surface area and absorbing water

L: Breaking down rock to form new soil; providing vital food

Why did charophyte algae eventually move to land? What advantages/disadvantages did they gain by doing so?
What unique features do plants have, and why are they important?

they moved to land to access sunlight and avoid competition, gaining advantages like increased photosynthesis potential but facing challenges like desiccation and gravity.

Rigid cell walls made of cellulose, a large central vacuole

Hepatophyta, Bryophyta, Anthocerophyta

Hepatophyta: Liverworts, flattened, lobed, leafy shape (liver shaped)

Bryophyta: Mosses, Small, green plants like tuffts or mats

Anthocerophyta: Hornworts, Flat, circular, circular thallus, have a long sporophyte

Nonvascular vs. seedless vascular vs. seed vascular plants

Nonvascular: Lack vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), Have a dominant gametophyte phase, and require moisture

Vascular: Posses xylem and phloem, but reproduce via spores; dominant sporophyte

Seed vascular: Use pollen or seeds to reproduce, dominant sporophyte

Xylem vs. Phloem

Xylem: Xy to the sky. Roots to leaves; only move one way; provides structural support

Phloem: Transports sugars and nutrients: Move from leaves to roots, can move both ways

Radial vs Bilateral symmetry

Radial is around one axis

Bilateral is around two axis

Know the sterile and reproductive parts of a flower and the structures found within the reproductive parts.

Stamen (male) - pollen producing part

Anther - The top part of the stamen that produces and stores pollen grains

Filament - Slender stalk that supports the anther

Carpel (female) - Receive pollen and produce seeds

Stigma - The sticky part of the pistil/carpel

Style - The stalk containing the stigma

Ovary - Contain ovules

What is a fruit and what are its functions

A mature ripened ovary; to protect developing seeds from damages and environmental harms

Cells, tissues, organs, organisms

Cells - fundamental unit of life

Tissues - Group of specialized cells which combine to create organs

Organs- Group of tissues to carry out a complex function

Organisms - An individual living being ranging from unicellular to mutlicellular

Shoot vs Root system

Shoot- Above ground, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit; provides structural support, facilitates photosynthesis, and enables reproduction

Root - Underground network of roots responsible for anchoring the plant, absorbing water and nutrients, storing food

Primary vs lateral growth. How do they grow indefinitely

Primary: Increase plants length (upward/downward) via apical meristems, roots and shoots

Lateral: Growth increase girth and width via cork and cambium

They grow indefinitely because of dividing stem cells at the roots and shoots allowing continuous production of new tissues

Phototrophs vs. Chemotrophs

Use sunlight as their form of energy

Obtain energy through inorganic or organic compounds

How do autotrophs and heterotrophs obtain nutrients

Autotrophs produce their own food by sunlight/photosynthesis

Heterotrophs consume their energy by consuming other organisms or organic matter

What does transpiration mean? How is this process performed

Translocation?

The process by which plants loose water in the form of water vapor primarily through stomata on their leaves

The movement or transfer of materials from one place to another within the plant, often referring to the transport of nutrients and water through xylem and phloem.

How does nitrogen fixation occur

Converting atmospheric nitrogen to usable ammonia (N2) → (NH3)

Why are some species evergreens? What advantages do they gain by staying green all year around?

Evergreens are species that retain their foliage throughout the year, providing advantages such as year-round photosynthesis, protection against soil erosion, and the ability to thrive in nutrient-poor environments. These adaptations allow them to survive in various climates and maintain a steady supply of energy.

What is self-prunning? And why does it happen?

Where trees shed branches/leaves usually lower more shaded ones by creating a abscission layer to seal them off

It happens to eliminate branches that consume more CO2 than they can produce, saving resources, reducing weight, and responding to stress

Anions and Cations

Anions are usually leached compared to cations

Anions (-)

Cations (+)

Sexual reproduction of animals. Zygote to Gastrula

Gamete formation: Meiosis

The zygote goes through cleavage to form a blastula, followed by gastrulation

Diploblastic vs. triploblastic

Diplo = Two

Tripo = Three

Endoderm, Mesoderm, Ectoderm

M only has Endo and Ecto

Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes

Forms from mouth first

Forms from anus first

Why are sponges not considered true animals? What are some specialized cells found within them?

They lack true tissues, organs, a nervous system, and symmetry

Choanocytes : Use flagella and pahgocytosis to create water currents

Ameobocytes: Motile, amoeba- like cells. They transport food and take in nutrients

What does Hermaphroditism mean? How do these animals reproduce

Hermaphroditism refers to the condition where an organism possesses both male and female reproductive organs. These animals can reproduce by self-fertilization or cross-fertilization with another hermaphrodite.

What is coral bleaching? How would global warming/ rising ocean temps impact them?

The process where corals, stressed by rising ocean temperatures loose their symbiotic algae

The temperatures could kill them stripping them of their colors and being able to provide food

Gills vs. Lungs

They both allow organisms to breathe

Gills are internal or external structures designed to extract dissolved oxygen from water

Lungs are internal structures designed for breathing oxygen from the air

Trichinella Spiralis

A parasitic roundworm that causes trichinosis a disease acquired by eating raw or undercooked meat

Complete vs. Incomplete Metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis involves four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult, while incomplete metamorphosis consists of three stages: egg, nymph, and adult, without a pupal stage.

Cyclostomes vs. Gnathostomes

Cyclostomes - Hagfish and Lampreys; Jawless vertebrates with circular mouths

Gnathostomes - Fish and tetrapods; Jawed vertebrates with paired appendages.

4 key characteristics of Chordates

Notochords

Muscular post-anal tail

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

Pharyngeal slits

Chondrichthyes vs. Osteichthyes

Cartilage fish with skeletons made of cartilage.

• Sharks, rays, and skates

Bony fish

• Most fish include salmon and trout

Why do amphibians require damp habitats

For reproduction and to prevent desiccation of their skin. Amphibians, being ectothermic, also rely on moist environments to maintain hydration and facilitate their life cycles. Cutaneous respiration

What is special about cephalochordata (lancelets) and Urochordata (tunicates)? What about Myxini (hagfishes) and Petromyzontida (lampreys)?

Cephalochordata and Urochordata are integral to the chordate phylogeny, with cephalochordates displaying features like a notochord extending into the head, while urochordates exhibit larval chordate traits. Myxini and Petromyzontida are jawless fish; hagfishes are known for their slime production, while lampreys are parasitic and possess a toothed, funnel-like mouth.

Vertebrates and Chordates

All vertebrates are chordates but not all chordates are vertebrates

Amniotic egg

Name stems from the amnion

Amnion, Yolk sac, Allantois, Chorion

How do Amniotes differ from amphibians

in their reproductive strategies, primarily through the presence of an amniotic egg that allows them to reproduce in terrestrial environments, while amphibians typically require a water source for reproduction.

Ectothermic vs. Endothermic eggs

Ectothermic animals depend on environmental temperatures for regulation, while endothermic animals regulate their body temperature internally via metabolism

Endo = warm blooded

Ecto = cold blooded

How did birds adapt morphologically/physiology to be able to fly

They have only feathers, lightweight bones, no teeth, small gonads, no place to use the bathroom, one ovary and a high metabolic rate

Oviparous vs. Viviparous

Oviparous animals lay eggs - most fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians

Viviparous - Embryo develops inside the mothers womb - mammals

New World vs. Old World Monkeys

New World monkeys, found in Central and South America, have prehensile tails and broad noses, and are arboreal

Old World monkeys, found in Africa and Asia, lack prehensile tails and have narrow noses, are arboreal and ground dwellers

Both are Dinural (More lively during the day)

Monotremes vs Marsupials vs. Eutherians

Monotremes are egg-laying mammals like the platypus; marsupials give birth to underdeveloped young that mature in pouches, such as kangaroos; and eutherians are placental mammals that develop fully in the womb before birth.

Misconception about human evolution

A common myth that humans evolved directly from modern monkeys, when in fact, humans and apes share a common ancestor and have evolved along separate paths. And that we evolved in a line while most of these animals lived at the same time

Different types of Epithelial tissues

Squamous - Single layer of flat, thin cells, ideal for diffusion and filtration

Cuboidal - Single layer of cube-shaped cells; found in kidney tubules; specialized for secretion and absorption

Columnar - Tall narrow cells often with microvilli; found in the stomach and intestines

Different types of Muscle tissue

Skeletal - Throughout the body such as the biceps and legs; voluntary

Cardiac - Found only in the heart wall - Involuntary

Smooth - Walls of hollow internal organs - Involuntary

Homeostasis; Positive vs. negative

Feedback mechanisms in the body that regulate internal conditions. Negative feedback counteracts changes to maintain stability ex: Sweating while working out

While positive feedback amplifies changes for processes like childbirth.

Arteries, Veins, Capillaries

Arteries - Thick, muscular - carry oxygen away from the heart

Veins - Thin - Bring oxygen towards the heart

Capillaries- Very thin connect arteries and veins facilitating the exchange of oxygen

How many chambers of the heart do fish, amphibians, and humans have? Which one is the receiving (or pumping) chamber?

Fish have 2 chambers (1 atrium, 1 ventricle), amphibians have 3 chambers (2 atria, 1 ventricle), and humans have 4 chambers (2 atria, 2 ventricles). The atrium is the receiving chamber, while the ventricle is the pumping chamber.

What type of gas exchange method do different types of animals use?
Fish vs. amphibians vs. reptiles vs. birds

Fish use gills for extracting oxygen from water, amphibians can utilize both skin and lungs, reptiles primarily rely on lungs, and birds employ a highly efficient respiratory system with air sacs.

What are the three regions (basic plan) of the brain?
What functions does each section serve?

Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Forebrain - High levels of thinking, learning, and emotional process

Midbrain - Processes visual and auditory information, regulates movement

Hindbrain - Controls basic life functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic

Sympathetic = Fight or Flight = Heart rate increase, pupils dilating, digestion slows, increase in adrenaline

Parasympathetic = Rest and Digest = Heart rate slows, promoting digestion, constricting pupils

Evolution

The process by which species develop and diversify from earlier forms over time. It explains the adaptation and survival of organisms through natural selection.

Why does evolution happen at the population level, not within individual organisms?

Evolution occurs at the population level because it is driven by the genetic variation and changes in allele frequencies within a population over generations, not by the adaptations of individual organisms during their lifetimes.

How and why does natural selection occur?

Natural selection occurs when individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to increased prevalence of those traits in subsequent generations. This process drives evolution by favoring traits that enhance survival and reproduction in specific environments.

What are the four main mechanisms that lead to evolution that we discussed together? Can you explain how each occurs and whether they increase or decrease genetic diversity?

The four main mechanisms that lead to evolution are natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. Natural selection increases genetic diversity by favoring advantageous traits, genetic drift can decrease genetic diversity through random changes in allele frequencies, gene flow introduces new alleles from other populations, and mutations create new genetic variation.