APHG Unit 4

Nation

A group of people united by common characteristics such as language, culture, ethnicity, or history, often associated with a specific territory.

Ex: The Kurds

Nation-State

A state whose political boundaries align closely with a nation’s cultural boundaries. RARE.

Ex. Japan, Iceland

Stateless Nation

A nation without a sovereign state; often seeks autonomy or independence

Ex. Kurds

Multinational State

A state with more than one nationality living under a single government

Ex. Canada (English & French nations)

Autonomous Region

A region with significant self-governance, often due to ethnic conflict

Ex. Greenland (Denmark)

Semi - Autonomous Region

Limited self-rule but under state sovereignty

Ex. Native American Reservations

Theocracy

A form of govt where religious leaders control the state and laws are based on religious doctrine. The state and religion are intertwined.

Ex. Iran - laws are based on Islamic principles, Vatican City - the pope is the political leader

Sovereignty

supreme power or authority

Ex. China controlling internal policies

Self-Determination

The right of a people to decide their political status and form of govt

Colonialism

Direct political and economic control of a territory by a foreign power

Ex. British India

Imperialism

Expansion of power thru military, economic, or political dominance, often w/o settlement

Ex. European Scramble for Africa

Independence Movements

Efforts by colonized or dominated peoples to gain sovereignty

Ex. Ghana (1957)

Devolution Along National Lines

Transfer of power from a central govt to regions based on ethnicity or nationality

Devolution

The transfer of power from a central govt to regional or local govts, often to address ethnic, cultural, or economic differences.

EX. Scotland gaining its own parliament within the UK; Catalonia in Spain pushing for autonomy

Impact - can reduce internal tensions, allow regions more self-governance, & can accommodate ethnic or cultural diversity w/o breaking the state.

Balkanization

The fragmentation of a state into smaller, often hostile, units along ethnic, cultural, or religious lines. It is usually violent or destabilizing.

EX. Breakup of Yugoslavia into Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Kosovo, and N. Macedonia

Impact - can create failed states, ethnic conflict, or new national boundaries (often destabilizing the region and drawing in external powers)

Key Differences (Devolution & Balkanization)

D - peaceful/organized transfer of power within a state

B - violent or destabilizing fragmentation of a state

Neocolonialism

The use of economic, political, cultural, or other indirect pressures by powerful nations and corporations to control or influence developing countries, especially former colonies, without direct military or political domination.

Ex. World Bank Loan Conditions

Shatterbelt

Politically unstable region caught between competing powers

Ex. Middle East, Balkans

Choke Point

Strategic narrow passage controlling trade or military movement

Ex. Straight of Hormuz

Territoriality

Strong connection b/w people, culture, economy, and land; often tied to identity and sovereignty

Ex. Indigenous land rights

Heartland Theory

Control of the “Heartland” ( Central are of Eurasia which is Eastern Europe + Central Asia) = global domination because it is a resource - rich and strategically protected.

Ex. During the cold war, the USSR controlled much of the heartland which led to emphasis on controlling central Asia and E. Europe

Rimland Theory

Controlling the “rimland” (coastal edges of Eurasia which is Western Europe, middle east, & SE. Asia) is key to global power because of trade, ports, and population centers.

Domino Theory

Suggests that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like “dominoes”

Organic Theory

Compares a state to a living organism; a state needs to grow and expand its territory to survive. Expansion is necessary and natural.

Ex. Nazi Germany used ideas similar to this to justify their expansion into Eastern Europe

Relic Boundary

No longer exists but still impacts cultural / political patterns

Ex. Berlin Wall

Superimposed Boundary

Imposed by external powers w/o regard to local cultures

Ex. African colonial borders

Subsequent Boundary

Established after settlement to reflect cultural differences

Ex. India - Pakistan

Antecedent Boundary

Established before population settlement

Ex. U.S Canada border

Gerometric

Straight - line boundary using latitude/longitude. Almost always superimposed.

Ex. U.S- Mexico

Consequent Boundary

Follows physical or cultural features after settlement

Ex. Pyrenees Mountains that separate spain and france

Evolution of Boundaries

DEFINE - written in treaties

DELIMITED - Drawn on maps

DEMARCATED - physically marked on land

ADMINISTERED - enforced by states

Contested Boundaries

Disputed territories due to conflicting claims

Ex. Kashmir, South China Sea

UNCLOS ( United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea)

Territorial Sea - 12 nautical miles

Exclusive Economic Zone - 200 nautical miles

Compact State

Small, roughly circular, efficient communication & administration

Ex. Poland, Kenya - easier to defend, better access to resources, and centralized govt

Prorupted State

Compact core with and extended arm / protrusion

Ex. Thailand, Namibia - access to resources water or trade, can create tension along narrow extensions

Perforated State

Completely surrounds another state

Ex. South Africa surrounds Lesotho - dependent on surrounded state for transit, can create geopolitical friction

Elongated State

Long and narrow

Ex. Chile, Vietnam - Difficult international communication, uneven development, vulnerable peripheries

Fragmented State

Multiple discontinuous pieces of territory

Ex. Indonesia, Philippines - Challenges for governance, transport, defense, cultural and economic isolation

Landlocked State

No direct access to ocean

Ex. Bolivia, Niger - trade disadvantages, Economic dependency on neighbors, reliance on river or rail transport

Enclave vs Exclave

Enclave - a territory completely surrounded by another state but culturally or politically distinct from it. EX - Lesotho

Exclave - a territory of a state separated from the main part of the country by another states territory. EX. Alaska

Voting Districts

Geographic units for electing representatives

Ex. U.S congressional districts

Reapportionment

the process of redistributing seats in a legislative body based on population changes determined by the census. Ensures representation reflects population shifts.

EX. after 2020 census, Texas gained 2 seats in the house of rep

Redistricting

Redrawing district boundaries after census data. Can be fair or biased

Gerrymandering

Manipulating districts to favor a political group

Ex. “Packing” and “cracking”

Unitary State vs Federal State

Unitary - power concentrated in the central govt; promotes uniformity. EX. Japan, France

Federal - Power shared across local govts. EX. US, Nigeria

Factors Leading to Devolution

Physical Geography, ethnic separatism, ethnic cleansing, terrorism, economic & social problems, irredentism

Physical Geography

Natural features and landforms

Ex. Himalayas

Ethnic Separatism

Groups seeking political autonomy or independence

Ex. Catalonia (Spain)

Ethnic Cleansing

Forced removal of ethnic groups to create homogeneity

Ex. Nazi Germany, Bosnia (1990s)

Terrorism

Violence used to destabilize govts and influence politics

Ex. ISIS

Economic & Social Problems

Poverty, inequality, and weak governance increase instability

Ex. Venezuela

Irredentism

Efforts to reclaim culturally or historically linked territory

Ex. Russia & Crimea - Putin argued that Crimea was historically Russian land, unjustly detached from Russia in 1954, and needed to be protected to defend ethnic Russians from the Ukrainian state.

Devolution (Autonomy)

Examples:

Spain - Catalonia, Basque Country

Belgium - Flemish & Walloon regions

Canada - Quebec

Nigeria - Ethnically based federal states

State Disintegration

the process where a unified sovereign state breaks apart, loses its ability to govern effectively, or collapses into smaller political units.

EX:

Eritrea —> Ethiopia

South Sudan —> Sudan

East Timor —> Indonesia

Former USSR —> Ukraine, Baltic states

Technology Facilitates:

Devolution - Social media organizing movements

Supranationalism - International coordination

Democratization - Political participation

Supranational Organizations

Organizations formed by 3 or more countries to achieve shared political, economic, or military goals often requiring member states to cede some sovereignty

Supranationalism has been advanced by:

global efforts to address transnational & environmental challenges

• Issues like climate change, pandemics, and pollution cross borders

• Countries cooperate thru supranational organizations (eg UN) to create shared policies

• Requires ceding some sovereignty

• EX. Paris Agreement sets shared emission targets

Creating economies of scale

Pooling resources and coordinating policies reduces production and distribution costs. Larger markets boost efficiency

EX. EU single market allows free movement of goods, services, and labor

Trade Agreements

Reduce tariffs, standardize rules, and facilitate cross-border trade. Requires alignment of domestic policies.

EX. NAFTA and EU single market follow common trade rules

Military Alliances

Collective security means an attack on one is an attack on all. Members may coordinate defense and station troops collectively

EX. NATO obliges mutual defense

Supranational organizations can challenge state sovereignty by limiting the economic or political actions of member states:

European Union (EU)

economic and political integration; member states follow EU trade, monetary, and migration policies

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

military alliance; collective defense obligations limit individual state actions

United Nations (UN)

addresses global conflicts, human rights, and environmental issues; can influence state policies thru resolutions

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

promotes economic growth, regional stability, and cooperation in SE Asia

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

coordinates oil production and prices among member states; can influence global energy markets and economic policies

Arctic Council

Environmental protection, sustainable development, and cooperation in the Arctic region

African Union (AU)

Conflict resolution, peacekeeping, regional integration, policy coordination

Centrifugal Forces (Divide States)

• Failed states (Somalia)

• Uneven development

• Stateless Nations (kurds

• Ethnic nationalism

Centripetal Forces (Unifies States)

• Ethnonationalism (shared ethnicity, race, language, religion, or culture)

• Shared infrastructure

• National education and language

• Cultural uniformity