Kantian Ethics

First Formulation

universalisability → “act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law”

contradiction of the will → would a rational person want to live in a world where the maxim is universalised

contradiction of nature → is it logically possible (contradictory)

Second Formulation

humanity → “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity… never purely as a means to an end but always at the same time as an end in themselves”

Third Formulation

“act as if you were, through your maxim, a law-making member of a kingdom of ends”

Good Will

intrinsically good → “it is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, which can be taken as good without qualification, except a good will”

noumenal realm

moral laws → the rational realm

phenomenal realm

desires → the physical realm

Montague Brown → support for the second formulation

‘solid basis of moral decision making’

Bernard Williams → critique on lack of emotion

‘moral alienation’

deontological approach removes emotion from moral decision making and removes motivation

Alasdair Mcyntire → critique on objective universal maxims

virtue ethics → morality should be discerned from practice/teaching/understanding of wider values and virtues

Schiller → critique on emotion

clash between natural human desires and the maxims ignores importance of emotion

Shoppenhauer → critique on rational

compassion and empathy should be central in moral decision making

Onora O’Neill → critique on practicality

clashes duty’s with second formulation

→ not always logically possible to be able to fullfill both equally

J.J C Smart → critique on lack of consequentialism

neglecting of outcomes is naive as there may be scenarios where using someone as a means is necessary for a good outcome

Haidt → critique on rationality

post-hoc realisation → humans always act inline with irrational desire and justify it reasonably after initial desire

Robert Johnson → support for second formulation

example: horse vs taxi driver

highlights the significance of treating people with humanity and also being able to use them as a means to and end

Jaqcues Rousseau → support for first and second formulations

moral freedom → true freedom comes from self-given law that must be grounded in autonomous reason

inherent worth/dignity → second formulation supports treating all individuals equally

Hegel → critique on practicality

first formulation is ‘empty’ as having universal maxims doesn’t provide guidance on specific scenarios