History France AOS2 (BAD - REDO!)

AUGUST DECREES AND DORMAC

1: August Decrees and DORMAC:

August Decrees:

•  (5th - 11th August 1789) - cahiers (influenced by 4000 pamphlet) in legislation

• “All forms of the tithe are abolished” (compulsory tax of about 10% of income, paid to Church)

• ABOLISHED: Financial Privileges - Tithes, Tax exemption, The Feudal System, Corporate and Provincial privileges - Venal Offices, Guild restrictions.

DORMAC:

• Passed by National Constituent Assembly on 27^th August 1789 - beginning of Constitution

• People were now citizens with equal rights granted by the Assembly, not subjects of the king.

• “All men are born and remain free and equal in rights” 

• “The source of all sovereignty lies in the nation”

CHURCH REFORM

2: CHURCH REFORMS

Old Church Power:

•  1789 France - 98% 28 million people of the population was Catholic (INFLUENCE) - Church owned 6% land (churches, hospitals schools) DOMINANCE 

• Tax exemptions, privileges to monarch, intrinsically connected to ancien regime.
  
  

CIVIL CONSTITUTION OF THE CLERGY:

• Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12 July 1790) - Limited the number of bishops, made clergy paid employees of the government, requires all members of the clergy to swear an oath 

• Clerical Oath - Bishops required to swear “loyalty to the nation, the law and the king”

• HOWEVER created a conscience crisis - 50% refractory priests refusal - WEAKENDED CONSOLIDATION. Division contributed to counter revolution.

• All 104 Nates priests refused reforms - salries stopped by Gov.

_{^{CCC OVERALL: It turned the Church into a branch of the state.}}

• _{^{It made bishops and priests elected officials paid by the state.}}

• _{^{It forced all clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the French nation (and, by extension, the new revolutionary government).}}

TERROR LEGISLATION

3. TERROR LEGILSATION

LAW OF 14 FRIMAIRE:

• The Law of 14 Frimaire Year II (4 December 1793)

• The Committee of Public Safety was granted full executive powers by the National Convention. “Constitution of the Terror”

• 5 September 1793, the National Convention declared, ‘Let Terror be the order of the Day”

LAW OF SUSPECTS: 

• The Law of Suspects, 17 September 1793

• Granted CPS permission to place all persons suspected of opposing the revolution in custody - legislation behind systematic elimination internal threats posed by counter revolutionists - repressive laws 

Reforms to the Church: CCC AND OATH

Civil Constitution of the Clergy: 

• Civil Constitution of the Clergy - 12th July 1790 - Passed by National Constituent Assembly

• Transform Catholic church → TO STATE CHURCH.

• Limited the number of bishops, made clergy paid employees of the government, requires all members of the clergy to swear an oath pledging their loyalty to the nation + revolution

**CONSEQUENCE → 

• 13th April 1791 - Pope Pius VI directly condemned the reforms and oath 

• Average refusal rate across all of France was 50% - specifically in Vendee 90%

• DIVISION amongst peoples

• “the Catholic church came to be associated with counter-revolution” - Ford

Reforms to the Church - COUNTER REVOLUTION

Vendee Rebellion:

• Due to anger of clergy treatment (and conscription- 300,000 additional military recruits from the provinces.)

• Vendée - November 1790 - 90% of Priests in this region refused to take the Clerical Oath 

• April 1793 Vendeans formed a “Catholic and Royal Army” of between 20,000 and 40,000 rebels.

**CONSEQUENCE MORE→ Pushed instruments of the Terror inflicted by NC. 

“The Vendée is no more” - Westerman CPS.

Reforms to the Church - DECHRISTIANISATION

3: DE CHRISTIANISATION!!

• Attempt to erase the catholic church from everyday life.

• The Revolutionary Calendar (Oct 1793) - replaced the 7-day week to 10-day "décade"- removing Sundays

• 1794, just under 40,000 churches were closed ,rechristened the ‘Temple of Reason - Including Notre Dame Cathedral.

Outbreak and course of war - Royal Family!

1: Royal Family
BRUNSWICK MANIFESTO:

• First Coalition Invading armies sought to protect him until he could be rescued.

• On 25 July 1792 - Brunswick Manifesto - frightened the French to ensure no harm to the royal family. THREATENED PARISIANS.

• “delivering the city of Paris to military punishment and total destruction” 

• BUT OPPOSITE EFFECT - confirmed popular belief Louis was leading a conspiracy against the revolution.

STORMING OF THE TUILLERIES:

• Storming of the Tuileries: 10 August 1792 - 20,000 armed san-culottes and federes

• Effect: 560 Swiss Guards were killed + an unknown civilian number

• Uncontrollable mob of San Culotte = The Constitution of 1791 was abandoned - Royalty confined in Temple Prison. 

• “the revolutionaries chose victims who symbolised the sovereign power of the king…” - Goldhammer

Outbreak and course of war - FEAR AND HYSTERIA!

2. FEAR AND HYSTERIA:

Calling on People:

• 16 August 1792, Prussian forces entered France. 19 August, Austrian forces entered France

• Fear and hysteria galvanised people into action

• Posters: ‘To arms, citizens! The enemy is at our gates!

SAN CULLOTTES: September Massacres

• 2 September 1792, crowds of sans-culottes armed - attacked the prisons

• The massacres continued for four days.

• ONLY ⅓ LEGITIMTE COUNTER REVOLUTIONARIES

• Total: 2700 Jailed Parisian prisoners —> 1200-1400 died.

• Marat demanded, ‘Let the blood of traitors flow. That is the only way to save the country.’ 

CONSEQUENCE → Officially announced TERROR - systematically eliminate all threats to its existence through repressive laws + institutions, in alignment with San Culotte Pressure (law of suspects, law of 14 Frimaire)

Outbreak and course of war - VENDEE REBELION!

3. Vendee Rebellion:

• 24th Feb 1793, Convention ordered conscription (300 000 men (a military levée))

  • Riots and protest + Avoidance -(1793 - 1794) increase marriage  by 85000

*VENDEE:

• Trigger for outright rebellion was the military levée of February 1793

• (November 1790 - 90% of Priests refused to take the Clerical Oath )

• June 1793 Vendeans formed a “Catholic and Royal Army” of between 40,000 rebels.

**CONSEQUENCE MORE→ Pushed instruments of the Terror inflicted by NC. 6,000 people (400 children) were executed in the region. Scorched Earth Policy and Noyades drownings.

“The Vendée is no more” - Westerman CPS.

AUGUST DECREES

1. August Decrees:

• McPhee‘ the age of privilege and exception was over’

• August Decrees = Night of Patriotic Delirium and Cahiers in legislation

• Signalled the end of the Ancien Regime -Liberty, equality, popular sovereignty replacing structures of absolute monarchy, the estates and the system of privilege

• ABOLISHED: Financial Privileges - Tithes, Tax exemption, Feudal System - Seigneurial Courts

  • HOWEVER: Compensation payable to the seigneur was 25-30% of the year’s dues - almost impossible amount for a peasant or rural community to raise.

  • Still left inefficient system, did not address harvest crisis, (did not reduce hunger)

• Article 1 ‘embarrassing text’ (Douai) → “The N.A abolishes the feudal regime in its entirety”

DORMAC

DORMAC:

• Passed by National Constituent Assembly on 27^th August 1789 - beginning of Constitution

• Aligned with principles of enlightenment.

• Promised total equality “All men are born and remain free and equal in rights”. 

  • HOWEVER: Subsequent legislation based on this document created a hierarchy of wealth - Constitution 1791

  • Decree Establishing Electoral and Administrative Assemblies (22 Dec 1789) - Active vs Passive Citizen = defining voting rights. Active citizens = favoured property owners. Again legislated in the 1791 Constitution.

  • Did not create total equality, created bourgeois Power, replaced Birth Aristocracy with the Aristocracy of wealth. McPhee: ‘a statement of bourgeois idealism’

TERROR LEGISLATION - more!

3. TERROR

• Article 9 DORMAC “… every man is presumed innocent until declared guilty.

• Article 3 DORMAC "The pThe source of all sovereignty lies … in the nation."

• Law of Suspects, 17 September 1793 - all persons suspected of opposing the revolution were to be placed in custody. BROAD REASONING - even talking about or having associations with counterrevolution were targeted.

• 10 OCTOBER 1793 - Constitution of 1793 suspended— government ‘revolutionary until the peace’

• OVERRIDING FOUNDATIONAL VALUES.

Louis XVI changed society - REFUSAL + OCTOBER

1. Refusal → October Days (mobilisation)

• mcphee “Both the August Decrees and the Declaration met with refusal from Louis.’

• 5^th October 1789 - 6000 armed people (women) - marched to Versailles - Louis forced to ratify August Decrees and DORMAC. 

• 6^th October  - Return back to Paris - Crowd escorting royals 

• ***LOUIS INACTION ALLOWED FOR VIOLENCE TO INFLUENCE POLITICS - inaction lead to deaths, radicalisation of the mob, growing suspicion and rejection of monarchy.

• King and Family contained in Tuileries Palace - prisoners

Louis XVI changed society - Flight to Varennes

1. Flight To Varennes

• 20 JUNE 1791 - Louis and Family fled - feeling as if they were prisoners to the revolution

• Louis LEFT BEHIND A MEMORANDUM justifying departure

• “Come back to your king; he will always be your father’”

• “The monarchy’s funeral procession” (Hazan) 

• Not prepared to be King over a revolutionary state, or renounce his religious belief.

• Between 21 June and end of July the NCA received over 650 letters from across France – these letters expressed ambivalent feelings towards the monarch

• ** NEW CONSTITUTION VULNERABLE - MONARCHY’S POWER DEAD, removal of right to suspensive veto - The Assembly now had full control over government.

• 15 July 1791

  The Assembly declared Louis had been "kidnapped" and suspended his power until the Constitution was completed. 

ROBSPIERRE

1. ROBSPIRERRE:

• Robespierre (1758-1794) was the most significant leader of the French Revolution’s radical period - the driving force behind the Committee of Public Safety and the Terror. 

• Robespierre + colleagues on the CPS made “terror the order of the day”. 

• Created the Law of Suspects (September 1793) - provided a legal basis for the Terror

• Created the Decree on Emergency Government (October 1793) - suspended the constitution and individual rights

• Law of Frimaire (December 1793), centralised government power in the hands of the CPS. 

• CAUSED THE TERROR - MOST VIOLENT PERIOD OR REVOLITION -  1793 and 1794 - 50,000 French citizens executed.

• “Terror is nothing else than justice” Robespierre

September 1789 - Constitutional powers of the King Debate NA!

September 1789: Debate about the constitutional powers of the king

• Conservatives/monarchiens: absolute veto + hereditary upper house

• Radicals: no royal veto and no second chamber

• Moderates: suspensive veto and two house legislature 

10^th September 1789 

Delegates voted in favour of a one-house (unicameral) legislature (849 votes to 89) 

11^th September 1789

Lafayette’s proposal of suspensive veto 673 to 325 (11 deputies abstained) YES!

• King Louis XVI’s powers were curtailed:

  • Was no longer able to appoint judges or venal offices

• No longer had the authority to declare war or negotiate and sign treaties without the permission of the NA

• Would not have access to tax revenue but would be given an allowance of 25 million livres maximum per year

Demonstrates rapid restriction of royal authority and debate over the form of constitutional government.

Louis' refusal to ratify the August Decrees/DORMAC

• 19 September 1789: Louis gave only qualified acceptance.

• He did not formally ratify the legislation.

• He summoned the Flanders Regiment to Versailles.

• This increased fears that he was preparing to resist the Revolution.

Silly move #1 – Louis does not ratify August Decrees nor DORMAC

Silly move #2 - Louis summons troops to Versailles

Silly move #3 – 21^st September Louis welcomes regiments in a banquet where soldiers trample on the tricolour cockade!

• 2^nd October news of the reception of the regiment stomping on the patriotic cockade caused an uproar in Paris

• 5^th October crowds gathered in marketplace – bring the king to Paris and get him away from the corrupting influence of the Court

*LINK TO WOMENS MARCH!!!

Fundamental Principles of Government

1^st October 1789 – NCA passed the Fundamental Principles of Government

• Monarchy remained hereditary.

• King had to govern within the law.

• NCA controlled legislation, taxation and expenditure.

• King could choose ministers.

• Judicial power belonged to courts.

• King could not interfere with justice.

*extent of change to monarchy

Administrative reform!

Challenge: France’s disorganised administration
Response: Municipal and administrative assemblies created

• major administrative restructuring/Decentralisation: 

• Administrative departments = 83 (26^th February 1790)

• Districts - 547

• Communes (local city councils)- 44,000 - people all of a sudan become officials - each had mayor

• Now everyone can vote all the time - decentralised voting, make things equitable, provinces have more power.

Judicial Reform!

Challenge: inequitable judicial system
Response: Judicial system made more uniform and fairer
19^th June 1790 – Abolition of nobility and all other honorific distinctions

• August 1790 – reorganisation of judiciary; abolition of Parlements

  • Judges needed 5 years' legal experience.

  • Judges elected for 6 years.

  • Elected Justices of the Peace replaced seigneurial courts.

  • Public Prosecutor appointed by the king – Louis had some authority

  • Juries for criminal cases

  • Punishments made less cruel – decapitation would be the capital punishment for all. Guillotine replaced the sword as most rational way of taking human life

  • Lettres de cachet abolished; More formal arrest procedures

Further Tax Reform!

Challenge: inefficient and corrupt taxation system + need to raise revenue
Response: overhaul of taxation system

• 2^nd November 1789 – Nationalisation of Church Property

• 31^st October 1790 – Decree Providing for a Uniform Tariff: indirect taxes (e.g. gabelle) abolished as seen as harmful to commerce and trade - replaced by a single uniform tariff on imports and exports 

Assignats and Inflation!

• Church land sales began December 1789.

• Between April–September 1790, assignat value rapidly decreased as too many were issued.

• This contributed to inflation.

1790 = 100 livres in notes → 1792: 63 livres in coins

Overview of San Cullote:

• Became a significant political force from 1792.

• Parisian urban workers, artisans and merchants.

• Represented around 10% of urban workers .

• Not all urban workers were sans-culottes.

• Combined economic + political demands.

• Used journées, violence and threats.

• Wanted:

  • Trial of Louis XVI.

  • A republic.

  • Direct political participation.

• Often acted as vigilantes.

Protest of 20^th June 1792

Causes: Louis XVI’s use of suspensive veto + dismissing the Girondin ministers

• 8000 armed Parisian demonstrators (sans-culottes) marched

  • Encouraged by the leaders of the Cordeliers

• Presented a petition:

  • Condemning Louis’ use of suspensive veto

  • Demanding recall of Girondin ministry

• Mob then invaded the Tuileries Palace, found the King and presented their petition

• Louis XVI:

  • Calmly donned the red bonnet

  • Drank a toast to the revolution

  • Did not make any commitment to the demands being made

  • Waited 6 hours for assistance from the Assembly

Lafayette's role in 1792

Lafayette’s Political Intervention (June–August 1792)

• Motivation: Feared radical influence (Jacobins) and threats to the Royal Family/Monarchy.

• June 18: Sent letter to Assembly demanding the closure of radical political clubs.

• June 20 (The Incident): After the protest of June 20, Lafayette abandoned his post (AWOL) to confront the Assembly.

• The Demands: Demanded the closure of clubs, restrictions on the press, and suspension of the right of petition.

• The Outcome: Failed to gain National Guard support; viewed with suspicion by the Assembly and mocked by the press.

• The End: Returned to the army, then defected to the Austrians on August 19, 1792 (spent 5 years in prison).

Reasons for early defeats: in War, Military Weakness

• Prussia – allied with Austria – ended up joining the war (June 1792) - professional armies

• The French army was ill-equipped

  • Only 140 000 troops who were poorly trained volunteer soldiers 

    • Viewed officers with suspicion rather than respecting their authority 

      • Lafayette refused to advance into battle, fearful his troops would disobey him!

  • Equipment was often defective and ammunition in short supply

  • The army was severely lacking in trained officers:

    • Over a third of the officer corps (some 3000 officers) had fled France as émigrés

• Defections and desertions were common (swap sides, little desire to fight):

  • May 1792 - Royal-Allemand regiment defected to the Austrians

• By June 1792 Paris was under threat and French army was surrendering at a rapid rate

*They knew the poor state they were going to war in - demonstrates how threatened they felt.

La Patrie en danger

End of June 1792: war not going well for France. Paris under threat!

• Terrified as war is advancing and losing.

• 11 July 1792: Legislative Assembly proclaims a state of emergency!

  • Called on all citizens to sacrifice themselves in the defence of France

• 12 July 1792: Legislative Assembly calls for 50 000 volunteers to join the army

  • 200 000 people registered!

• 30 July 1792: National Guard opened up to passive citizens 

• *MOBALISATION OF LOWER CLASS, GIVEN WEAPONS AND TOLD TO DEFEND, War increasing revolutionary participation.

Overview of Powers - 1792

• 20 September 1792: National Convention replaces Legislative Assembly.

• 21 September: monarchy abolished.

• 22 September: Republic declared.

One missing thing for Terror: Law of 22 Prairial

10 June 1794

• Began the Great Terror.

• Expanded definitions of counter-revolutionary activity.

• More than 1,300 people executed in Paris within six weeks.

• Repealed after Robespierre's downfall.

Thermidor & the end of the Terror

• 27–28 July 1794 (9–10 Thermidor Year II) — Robespierre and leading supporters overthrown.

• Robespierre was executed on 28 July 1794.

• Marked the beginning of the Thermidorian Reaction.

• Ended the dominance of the radical Jacobin government and Great Terror.

• Revolutionary Tribunal and Terror were gradually dismantled.

• Political prisoners were released.

• Jacobin influence declined.

• Sans-culottes lost political influence.

• More moderate/conservative forces regained control.

• Demonstrates that revolutionary politics shifted back towards moderation after radicalisation.

What changed after Thermidor?

• July 1794 onwards: Terror reduced and radical institutions dismantled.

• Jacobin Club eventually closed.

• Sans-culottes lost influence.

• Economic controls associated with the radical government were reduced.

• Former opponents of the Jacobins returned to political prominence.

• 1795: Constitution of Year III established a more conservative political system.

• Demonstrates a significant shift from radical revolutionary government towards political stability and moderation.

Constitution of Year III / 1795

• 22 August 1795 — Constitution of Year III approved.

• Created the Directory, which governed France from 1795–1799.

• Rejected the political radicalism of 1793–94.

• Created a bicameral legislature:

  • Council of Five Hundred.

  • Council of Ancients.

• Executive power given to five Directors.

• Voting rights became more restricted than under the proposed Constitution of 1793.

• Designed to prevent both:

  • A return to monarchy.

  • Another period of Jacobin dictatorship.

• Demonstrates the Thermidorian shift towards political moderation and greater concern about concentrated power.

How did the 1791, 1793 and 1795 constitutions differ?

1791	1793	1795
Constitutional monarchy	Republic	Republic
King retained suspensive veto	No monarch	No monarch
Active/passive citizens	Universal male suffrage	More restricted suffrage
Implemented	Never implemented	Implemented
Legislative Assembly	National Convention	Bicameral legislature
Moderate/liberal	Radical/democratic	More conservative

Counter-revolution - specific groups

Counter-revolutionary opposition came from several groups:

• Émigrés — nobles who fled France and sought foreign intervention.

• Refractory clergy — priests who rejected the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

• Royalists — supporters of restoring monarchy.

• Vendée — major rural rebellion beginning in 1793.

• Federalist revolts — opposition to increasing centralisation by the Jacobins.

• Lyon — major centre of resistance to the revolutionary government.

• Foreign monarchies — particularly Austria and Prussia, which fought revolutionary France.

Why was the Vendée significant?

• Major counter-revolutionary uprising in 1793.

• Strongly associated with:

  • Catholicism.

  • Royalism.

  • Rural communities.

• Opposition intensified after revolutionary policies including:

  • Religious reform.

  • Conscription/military recruitment.

• Revolutionary government responded with severe military repression.

• Demonstrates that revolutionary ideals were not universally accepted across France.

• Shows the tension between:

  • Revolutionary centralisation.

  • Local/religious traditions.

Why were foreign powers a challenge to the Revolution?

• European monarchies feared revolutionary ideas spreading.

• Declaration of Pillnitz — 27 August 1791.

• France declared war on Austria — 20 April 1792.

• Prussia joined Austria — June 1792.

• French army initially suffered major weaknesses:

  • ~140,000 troops.

  • More than ⅓ of officers had emigrated.

  • ~3,000 officers had fled.

• Foreign invasion contributed to:

  • Fear of counter-revolution.

  • Political radicalisation.

  • The 10 August 1792 uprising.

  • September Massacres.

  • Greater centralisation and the Terror.

How did revolutionary government develop between 1792 and 1794?

1792 — National Convention

• Monarchy abolished, Republic established.

1793 — Radicalisation

• Montagnards/Jacobins gained dominance.

• Committee of Public Safety established.

• Revolutionary Tribunal strengthened.

• Representatives-on-mission = enforce revly policies

10 October 1793

• Government declared "revolutionary until peace."

• Greater centralisation of power.

4 December 1793 — Law of 14 Frimaire

• Increased central control over revolutionary government.

• Reduced independent power of local revolutionary bodies.

1794

• 10 June — Law of 22 Prairial

• Great Terror intensified.

• 27–28 July — Thermidor

• Robespierre overthrown.

Overall: Government moved from representative republicanism towards highly centralised revolutionary government, before reversing direction after Thermidor.

Why did the revolutionary government become increasingly centralised?

Major pressures included:

• Foreign invasion.

• Civil war/counter-revolution.

• Economic crisis.

• Political division.

• Fear of royalists and other internal enemies.

• Need to mobilise resources rapidly.

The government responded through:

• Committee of Public Safety.

• Representatives-on-mission.

• Revolutionary Tribunal.

• Law of 10 October 1793.

• Law of 14 Frimaire — 4 December 1793.

• Terror.

Bourgeoies:

Change:

• Benefited from abolition of noble privilege.

• Greater access to political office and economic opportunity.

• Property rights protected by revolutionary legislation.

• Wealth/property became more important than inherited privilege.

Continuity:

• Political participation was still influenced by property/wealth.

• Many revolutionary institutions were dominated by educated/property-owning men.

Nobility:

• 4 August 1789: feudal privileges abolished.

• 19 June 1790: hereditary titles abolished.

• Noble political/legal privileges disappeared.

• 16,000+ nobles emigrated.

• Some noble property confiscated.

Continuity:

• Only around 7–10% of noble land was permanently sold.

• Nobles still owned approximately 20% of land by 1815.

Peasants:

Change:

• Feudal privileges abolished.

• Peasants gained greater legal equality.

• Church and émigré lands became available for purchase.

• Traditional seigneurial privileges weakened/disappeared.

Continuity/limitations:

• Some feudal dues initially remained and had to be bought out.

• Wealthier peasants benefited more from land purchases.

• Rural inequality remained.

• Some peasants opposed revolutionary policies, particularly religious reform and conscription.

**Vendee

Urban Workwers”

Change:

• Became increasingly politically active.

• Participated in journées and demonstrations.

• Helped drive radicalisation in 1792–94.

• Played major roles in:

  • 10 August 1792.

  • September 1792.

  • Radical phase of 1793–94.

Demands:

• Affordable food.

• Price controls.

• Political participation.

• Republic.

• Punishment of counter-revolutionaries.

Continuity/limitations:

• Economic inequality remained.

• Sans-culottes did not permanently gain political control.

• Their influence declined after Thermidor, 1794.

---

Women

Change:

• Women became important participants in revolutionary political activity.

• Women's March on Versailles — 5–6 October 1789.

• Women participated in political clubs, demonstrations and petitions.

• Olympe de Gouges demanded political equality.

Limitations:

• DORMAC did not grant women equal political rights.

• Women excluded from formal voting.

• Women's political clubs were eventually suppressed.

• Revolutionary political equality remained largely male-centred.

Clergy

Change:

• Church property nationalised — 2 November 1789.

• Civil Constitution — 12 July 1790.

• Clergy became state employees.

• Bishops reduced 135 → 83.

• Clerical Oath — 27 November 1790.

• Dechristianisation during the radical phase.

Resistance:

• ~50% of clergy refused the oath.

• 90% refused in the Vendée.

• 104/104 priests in Nantes refused.

To what extent did the Revolution transform French society?

Major change

• End of absolute monarchy.

• Abolition of feudal privilege.

• Legal equality.

• Church brought under state control.

• Nobility lost legal privileges.

• New taxation system.

• Administrative reorganisation.

• New political institutions.

• Republic established.

• Revolutionary government introduced new concepts of citizenship and sovereignty.

Continuity/limitations

• Wealth remained highly unequal.

• Women remained politically excluded.

• Poorer citizens had limited political power for much of the Revolution.

• Nobles retained significant landownership.

• Religious divisions persisted.

• Peasant resistance demonstrated limits of revolutionary change.

• Political instability meant many revolutionary institutions were short-lived.