A level Religious Studies: OCR - Gender and Theology

The male warrior - messiah expectation

The Messiah that the Jews expected was one who would liberate them and bring about a time of peace . However , this would only come about by a process of war - the Messiah would fight to destroy God's enemies . As warriors were at the time thought of as men , the Messiah came to be thought of as a male figure .

The male warrior - messiah expectation - Jesus, expected?

Jesus was clearly far from what was expected of a Messiah in many senses ( see pages 48-49 ) . Ruether draws on this idea to point out that Jesus ' way of fighting was very different . What is important is not a list of warrior characteristics but virtues such as self - sacrifice and forgiveness ( as seen in The Sermon on the Mount ) . Ruether's point is that in order to be the Messiah ( and the Saviour ) , Jesus did not need to be male .

The male warrior - messiah expectation - Ruether's argument

As a result of this , Ruether argues that as Jesus did not need to be male , priests in the Catholic Church do not need to be male . This is a significant challenge to the Catholic Church because the Church has always linked the priest to Christ in a different way to other Churches : for Catholics , the priest takes on the role of Christ spiritually and so must be of the same gender as Christ . Ruether's thinking also makes it a lot easier for women to feel connected with Jesus and to pray to him and therefore to be saved by him . The argument here is that women are likely to feel alienated by having to pray to a male figure who cannot fully understand what it is to be a woman .

God and wisdom

In the Old Testament , God's wisdom is often described in human form . When this happens , often the characteristics described are feminine In the passage from Proverbs 8 , God as Wisdom is being portrayed as female . Ruether concludes from this that the maleness of God is not fundamental to who God is - there are both male and female aspects to God .

How are Ruether's arguments supported?

Both the Hebrew and Greek words for wisdom are feminine words and in the Old Testament wisdom seems to be linked with the divine source of with relationships . After knowledge and the source of life ; arguably , this is the aspect of God to do the Old Testament , the book called The Wisdom of Solomon ' ( included in the Catholic Old Testament ) speaks clearly about wisdom as feminine , suggesting the tradition was well - established . In the New Testament , the aspect of God to do with relationships was the Holy Spirit and the Hebrew word for spirit is feminine ( remember the spirit of wisdom of God ( 1 Corinthians God hovering over the waters in Genesis 1 : 2 ) . Paul described Jesus as the 1:24 ) and John uses the same theology of wisdom when describing Jesus as logos in John 1 : 1-18 However much of a speedy tour through the Bible help to show why Ruether thought that as much ( or more ) an incarnation of the feminine Jesus as God - made - human was this is , hopefully it will wisdom principle as anything else . Therefore , Jesus was biologically male but essentially not just male ( or even female ) .

Feminist thought can inspire change in Christianity - Jesus' maleness

A greater understanding of the fact that Jesus ' maleness is not essential to his nature can lead Christianity to understand that God is not essentially male . This would make the faith more accessible to women .

Feminist thought can inspire change in Christianity - Essential to his nature

If Jesus ' maleness is not essential to his nature , then his priests do not need also to be male . Greater female leadership in churches would radically change Christianity

Feminist thought can inspire change in Christianity - COunter-cultural nature of Jesus

One aspect of the counter - cultural nature of Jesus was that he spent time with women . In the early Church , there was a clear leadership role for women . There is a clear non - patriarchal opportunity within Christianity if it only re - finds its true roots

Feminist thought can inspire change in Christianity - Some night argue...

Some might argue that we must not attempt to rewrite the very essence of 2,000 years of Christianity because Christianity is not just about Jesus but also about the development of the faith over time . It is perhaps more important that society as a whole changes .

Feminist thought cannot inspire change in Christianity - theological level

What is explored on a theological level is not relevant to the day - to - day believer who is not theologically trained . For them , Jesus was a man and that is a stumbling block .

Feminist thought cannot inspire change in Christianity - Experiencing decline

Even those churches , such as the Church of England , that have allowed women to be priests for some time , are experiencing decline .

Feminist thought cannot inspire change in Christianity - Mary Daly

There are too many years of historical patriarchy to be overcome . Christianity should be abandoned . This is the view of Mary Daly that we will examine in the next section .

How did Daly start her argument?

Daly's starting point was a desire to draw attention to the marginalisation of women in the Catholic Church . She initially wanted to reform the Church but through her research she concluded there was too much inherent sexism and patriarchy in all of Christianity for reform . She saw the Church as abusing women .

One technique used by Daly

One technique Daly used was to re - claim archaic language to create a shift in people's consciousness so that women could look objectively at the current culture - she even ended up having to publish her own dictionary . For example , the word spinster comes from the idea of spinners who span wool , often in groups , but men had turned this into a derogatory term . Daly used this word to make women realise that they must work together to transform society and to free it from Christian patriarchy . Daly's vision was a future Amazonian age where women had taken over from men in their superiority ( referring to the myth of the warrior women of the Amazon ) .

Daly's most famous quotation

Daly's most famous quotation is probably , ' if God is male then the male is God This shows us that she believed that the particular understanding of God as male came out of an image drawn up by men in order to favour men - the male becomes God . Daly rejected the idea of some feminists that we should simply start to think of God in female terms because all we are doing is portraying the same , male , transvalued ; that is , to be re - evaluated and transformed using a new God in different words . Daly believed that Christianity needed to be starting point .

How was Daly influenced in her most famous quote?

Daly's most famous quotation is probably , ' if God is male then the male is God ' . This shows us that she believed that the particular understanding of God as male came out of an image drawn up by men in order to favour men - the male becomes God . Daly rejected the idea of some feminists that we should simply start to think of God in female terms because all we are doing is portraying the same , male , God in different words . Daly believed that Christianity needed to be transvalued ; that is , to be re - evaluated and transformed using a new starting point .

Transvaluation

In this , Daly was influenced by the thinking of the philosopher Nietzsche who , in declaring that God is dead , saw hope for a new way of thinking to emerge . Daly believed that only women could fully access the creative side of human nature and thus only women could move on from the false ideas inherent in society . This creativity is ongoing and the objective idea of God should be replaced with an ongoing process of creative ' Be - ing ' Daly ended up going further than Nietzsche because Nietzsche replaced the idea of God with man - so still patriarchal in nature . Daly said that the transvaluation of all phallic values begins with acomplete castration of God - that is , removing the use of the word ' God ' and rather than rejecting God's existence , accessing a more fundamental level than this - ' pre - God ' , the essence of the spiritual She referred to this as ' Be - ing ' .

Spirituality experienced through nature

As we have seen , Daly saw the need for a radical change to stop male domination . Even from the start of Christianity , women were blamed for the Fall - and then the central idea in Christianity is of God becoming a man in Jesus . Daly advocated a rediscovery of the ancient pagan nature religions , which held Mother Nature as essential to spirituality . Women must take control of society and men must learn to listen to women .

Spirituality experienced through nature - Be-ing

If Be - ing replaces the idea of God then the ongoing creativity of nature is reflected in the fundamental beliefs of people . By focusing on Be - ing , not God , people can embark on the journey of discovery of all that nature gives with no fixed goal - seeing the aim of life as a verb , not a noun .

Christianity should be abandoned - Patriarchy

Some might argue that 2,000 years of patriarchy is simply too deep - rooted to reform . The divine is greater than organised religion and people express their spirituality should seek other ways to

Christianity should be abandoned - Mary Daly's focus on nature

Mary Daly's focus on nature might demonstrate the essential aspect of the world better than an objective deity .

Christianity should be abandoned - Mary Daly's use of language

Mary Daly's use of language engages people in a shift in consciousness , designed to shock us to help us to step back from the world we are absorbed in and to see that significant change is required

Christianity should (not) be abandoned - Symbolic understanding

Some might argue that a symbolic understanding of Mary Daly might lead to a realisation that society has absorbed patriarchy too much . This could help people to re - find equality both within society and religion .

Christianity should not be abandoned - Doesn't consider all women

Mary Daly's approach is very much centred on people like her and so becomes as dangerous as the patriarchy she challenges . She does not really consider women of colour , or non - lesbian , non - educated , non - Western women .

Christianity should not be abandoned - Hatred of men

Mary Daly's thinking could be said to be based on a hatred of men and so Christianity should be seen as needing reform from its patriarchy , not abandonment

Christianity should not be abandoned - Genderless

Mary Daly's idea that ' if God is male then the male is God ' is flawed because pronouns like ' He ' are simply linguistic devices and not true descriptions of the ineffable God who not only is genderless but is not a thing at all .

Ruether - Goddess theology

In researching the nature of religions , Ruether identified the core principle that polytheistic religions are less sexist than monotheistic ones because in the latter , the male God is the supreme being . Ruether's analysis of Judaism before the Bible sees a tradition earlier than the texts and perhaps before Judaism became so strictly monotheistic , such as that found in the image of God suffering for the people like a mother . Here the goddess is the source of life . If early Judaism does not have the strict monotheism that we assume , then Ruether would argue that this has been carried over into the Christian understanding of the Trinity with Jesus as the feminine aspect of God .

Daly - Christianity's ' Unholy Trinity '

Mary Daly traced Christianity's sexism to the fact that the Christian God encourages patriarchal thought but she took this idea of patriarchy further to say that Christianity exists to destroy women and encourage men . Daly considers the Virgin Mary , the mother of Jesus , as an example . She sees Mary not as the symbol of the ultimate woman as many Christians do , but as an entirely passive figure , a hollow eggshell and therefore the ' Total Rape Victim ' . The way the Catholic Church reverences Mary has made it acceptable to see women in this passive , abusive way .

Daly - Christianity's ' Unholy Trinity ' -> How did she trace the Christian narrative?

Daly traced throughout the Christian narrative three key symbols of male dominance that she named ' The Most Unholy Trinity . These symbols are found in the Bible as well as in Church practice and demonstrate the inherent patriarchy as well as its impact on women and society in general . The Unholy Trinity is made up of:

- Rape = Daly says that by portraying women as entirely passive , they are raped both literally and metaphorically . Men also commit ' armchair rape ' when they enjoy pornography . Rape is assumed as ' normal ' in Biblical writings ( see Genesis 19 ) .

- Genocide - Daly says the idea that one group can have power over and destroy another entire group is part of society's conditioning of us Rape leads to genocide because it makes people feel power over the object and so as all men are rapists , man commits genocide . It is seen in the Catholic Church's banning of abortion where it makes women have unwanted children that are the result of rape . It is also seen in the Church's support of war .

Third part of Daly's unholy trinity

• War - Daly says war comes from male - dominated approaches to life and decision - making . War is , itself , a male , violent act and comes from a phallic mentality . Wars throughout the Bible normalise this approach and in the modern day , the Church accepts war but condemns abortion , thus further oppressing women as rape victims .

How does Daly think we need to destroy the patriarchy?

Accepting the truth of this Unholy Trinity and moving on from it entirely by destroying all patriarchy is the only way , for Daly , to rediscover Be - ing .

Yes , Christianity is essentially sexist - Male hierachy

The male hierarchy is fundamental to Christianity now and so the sexism is fundamental . This is seen not only in male only priest traditions but in the language of texts

Yes , Christianity is essentially sexist - 2000 years of tradition

Christianity's sexism comes from 2000 years of tradition because christianity is the sum of all of its experiences. Therefore Christianity shoukd either be radicailly changed or abandoned

Yes , Christianity is essentially sexist Christianity = The Unholy Trinity

The Unholy Trinity shows how engrained sexism is in Christianity and shows the need to abandon it entirely and to start again .

No , Christianity is not essentially sexist = Goddess and wisdom tradition

At the root of the faith is a rich Goddess and wisdom tradition that shows that the male hierarchy is imposed by humans later on

No , Christianity is not essentially sexist = Male-warrior

The Biblical texts are simply products of the societies from which they come . The essentials of Christianity are to live within a given society and so , as long as twenty - first century society is not sexist , Christianity does not need to be . For example , the warrior imagery for Jesus comes in the male - warrior Roman time .

No , Christianity is not essentially sexist = Taboos of the day

The example of Jesus demonstrates this : Jesus broke the taboos of his day in his interaction with women and if Jesus was not sexist , Christianity cannot be sexist .

What is spirituality ?

If spirituality is about focusing on non - material things over material things , then the title of this section may seem quite odd . Surely it is possible for anyone to be able to do that .

However , within Christianity , the idea of spirituality encompasses more than this :

- the ability to be holy

- the ability to have a relationship with God , through Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit

- the ability to live a life of prayer .

What is spirituality in terms of awareness?

It is about taking an awareness of non - material things and looking at them God will lead to a better life on earth and life in the afterlife . through the lens of Christianity . For Christians , the right relationship with

What is spirituality ? - The Christian relationship with God

The Christian relationship with God is , of course , mediated through Jesus Christ and so for some feminists , Jesus ' maleness is a potential issue . How can someone develop an absolute spiritual relationship with someone of the other gender and therefore gain salvation from this ? If gender is only biological then perhaps this is less of an issue ; however , if your gender is essential to who you are as a human then there could be issues . It is not a solution to draw on the feminine aspects of God such as the Holy Spirit because this would deny the absolute nature of the Incarnation .

A male saviour can save women - Jesus' gender

Jesus ' gender was not essential to his nature as God - incarnate and so it does not matter what gender he was : his salvation was for all people who were made in God's image .

A male saviour can save women - Ruether

In the same way that Jesus was not a typical warrior - messiah , Ruether says that discovering the feminine aspect of Jesus through the wisdom tradition makes salvation open to both genders .

A male saviour can save women - Coincidental gender of Jesus

Jesus showed how he brought salvation to all who desired it in his work in the Gospels . His gender was entirely coincidental .

A male saviour can save women - Women's ministry

For those Christians who accept women's ministry , there is an inherent equality at all levels , both material and spiritual between men and women .

A male saviour cannot save women - Jesus on the cross

Daly said that Jesus on the cross is a symbol of the male enjoyment of pain , torture and sexual dominance over women because his death only served to save men .

A male saviour cannot save women - women cannot achieve salvation

Any belief that Jesus is the perfect or ideal person seems to indicate that perfect people are necessarily men , which means that women cannot achieve salvation .

A male saviour cannot save women - Jesus saving the world

Daly believed that women should stand against the Church and everything that it stands for , including its central message of Jesus saving the world .

A male saviour cannot save women - Pure relarionship with a man

The first stage of being saved is to develop a prayer life with God through Jesus . For some Christians , perhaps especially women , this cannot be achieved as it is too difficult to have a pure relationship with a man .

Only women can develop a genuine spirituality - Creative

Daly argued that only women can fully access the creative aspect of human nature and that this creative aspect of human nature is the way to join with Be - ing . Therefore , only women can develop a genuine spirituality .

Only women can develop a genuine spirituality - Spinsters

Daly also argued that , as spinsters , women can spin a new narrative in the world - to remake the tapestry of history so destroyed by Christian patriarchy .

Only women can develop a genuine spirituality - Genuine spiritualities

Spirituality is about relationships and women tend to make deeper and more meaningful relationships with others than men . Thus it is more likely that women will develop genuine spiritualities .

Both men and women can develop a genuine spirituality - Teresa of Avila

There is a rich tradition of female mystical writers in Christianity- such as Teresa of Avila - who have achieved as much as male mystical writers such as John of the Cross .

Both men and women can develop a genuine spirituality - Difference in male and female perspectives

If women and men see the world differently , at least in some ways , it is entirely possible to say that women's route to spirituality is different to that of men's , though neither is inferior to the other . This would match the idea that different individuals have different spiritual journeys , with no reference to gender .

Both men and women can develop a genuine spirituality - The Catholic Church

The Catholic Church says that both men and women have ' perfections ' that reflect ' something of the infinite perfection of God ' - thus both can access a spiritual unity with God .

Only women can develop a genuine spirituality// Both men and women can develop a genuine spirituality = THERE IS NO GENUINE SPIRITUALITY

It could be argued that there is no such thing as a genuine spirituality . Each individual is different and , perhaps by definition , each individual will have a different spirituality . Some individuals might find God in nature and others in words . If there is no such thing as a genuine - or ' right ' spirituality , then gender plays no part in the discussion .

Gender and God - Can the Christian God be presented in female terms?

Clearly , God , being ineffable and without a body , does not have a gender The language we use of God is gendered in English because that is how our language is set up , not because Christians believe God is male . It can be argued that the whole imagery of God as male or father is convention coming from the limitations of human language . God's maleness could also be said to come from the patriarchal society in which first Judaism and then Christianity developed . Another issue is that Jesus , God- incarnate , was at least biologically a man which , as we have seen , is a key sticking point for some . Using the idea of understanding language by analogy , it is argued by some that seeing God as masculine best interprets the idea of God as creator ; although some would refute this and say that now that creation has happened , understanding God as nurturer and sustainer of the world might make God best understood as feminine A new version of the Christian ' Our Father ' prayer was published in the New Zealand Anglican Prayer book , which refers to God as ' Father and Mother of us all ' . As gender issues become more dominant , some Christians think that traditions should be re - examined .

The Christian God can be presented in female terms - Women to be priests

Ruether would argue that the Christian God can - and must be presented in female terms so as to put behind us the historical patriarchy and also the assumption that it is better to be male than female . This would further lead to a change in the structures of the Church , such as in a allowing women to be priests .

The Christian God can be presented in female terms - Jewish God

The Jewish God was presented as having female aspects such as wisdom . This is significant because the Old Testament does not make a big thing of God having a female aspects- as if it were normal to think of God in female terms as well as male terms .

The Christian God can be presented in female terms - Language

Ruether would argue that the language already exists to present God in female terms and it simply needs to be rediscovered in the tradition .

The Christian God can be presented in female terms - Male warrior-messiah

Ruether would further argue that the more we understand the true nature of Jesus , not as a male warrior - messiah but as a liberator and champion for the oppressed , the more we can see female characteristics with which we can describe him .

The Christian God can/ cannot be presented in female terms = Genderless God

Some might argue that the Christian God should not be presented in gendered terms at all because gender is a human idea , linked to biological sex , but also linked to the language that you speak in . However , a problem with this is that worshipping God is about worshipping someone with whom you can have a relationship - and it is hard to have a relationship with an ' it ' .

The Christian God cannot be presented in female terms - Physical resemblance

The Catholic Church stated that ' there must be a physical resemblance between priest and Christ ' and so priests must be male . Therefore , because Christ's maleness was essential to who he was , the historical fact of Christ being a male means that God should be presented only in male terms .

The Christian God cannot be presented in female terms - Male object

The Christian God is a male object . If female terms are used , it is just re - defining female words to fit already- existing masculine characteristics .

The Christian God cannot be presented in female terms - Years of tradition

There are too many years of tradition of the Christian God as male . It has become entrenched in Christian patriarchy and has led to too much destruction and rapism . Everything about God is gendered . It simply needs rejection on all levels .

The Christian God cannot be presented in female terms - Apophatic tradition

The Christian God cannot be presented in male or female terms because God is beyond gender . The apophatic tradition would support this.