Metaphysics

Metaphysics

deals with the nature of reality

• space and time

• human existence

• technology and existence

• abstract concepts

George Berkley

idealist

• denied the existence of material things

• believed reality consists of ideas and the minds that house them

Idealism

belief that all of reality is dependent and indistinguishable from the mind

• reality is “ideal”

• based on ideas of how things should be, whereas the real world is interpreted based on aspects like consciousness, perception, intellect, and reason

• best case scenario

platonic realism

• ideal forms of abstract concepts exist

  • e.g. perfect “form” of friendship exists ideally, even if it might not in reality

Thomas Hobbes

mechanic materialist

• believed only material things were real

Materialism

only material things exist

• rejects the idea that anything exists outside of the material world

• the only thing that can truly be proven to exist is matter

• phenomenal things like conscientiousness are a result of material reactions

• nothing but matter and the void exist

Monism

reality consists of one all-encompassing thing

• all particular things are manifestations of this one thing

  • e.g. everyone is an expression of God

Dualism

reality consists of 2 fundamentally different things

1. mind

2. matter

mental or emotional states have no material quality

Hylomorphism

all substance is made of a conceptual, non-literal matter and a more legitimate, physical form

• bronze statue sculpted, the form changed but the matter didn’t

Naturalism

all beings and events that take place in our world are natural

• nature is all there is

• scientific investigation

• limits itself to natural, material, and physical approaches

supernaturalism

belief in phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature

• the infinite

• religious beliefs

• magic and witchcraft

• paranormal phenomena

• the afterlife

unified reality theory

views reality as evolving form an absolute existence

• this existence must have a consciousness that is the source of what we experience as physical reality

• remains whole while differentiating into other forms

• consciousness/existence becomes reality through forming relationships with itself

the dream argument

Rene Descartes

• argued dreams are too easily confused with reality

Premise 1: dreams can often be confused with waking life

premise 2: dreams and waking life can have similar content

conclusions: there are no certain marks with which to distinguish dreams from reality

arguments against the dream argument

Hobbes & Locke

• Hobbes said dreamers are usually unaware of absurdities in their dreams, but awake ppl can be certain they are awake due to a lack of absurdities

plato’s cave allegory

premise 1: if u were trapped in cave for entire life and could only see silhouettes, you view them as being real

premise 2: if you left cave and saw the real objects, you would gain greater understanding of reality and if you returned to cave and told others what you saw, they wouldn’t believe you

conclusions: our understanding of reality is limited to our experiences and ability to comprehend

brain in a vat

idea that ur connected to a computer and be living through a simulation

• alien plugged brain into computer for research

premise 1: it would be impossible to prove ur not a brain in a vat, or remove self from the simulation

premise 2: you would only be experiencing the simulation and not know anything about the real world

conclusions: it is impossible to know for certain that you are experiencing the “real” world

the simulation argument

• Nick Bostrom

premise 1: it is possible to simulate consciousness

premise 2: technological progress will continue

premise 3: advanced civilizations don’t destroy themselves

premise 4: advanced civilizations want to run simulations

conclusion: if the above premises are true, you are probably inside a simulation

ship of theseus

• T had ship he used for adventuring

• over span of 50 years, every part of the ship had been replaces with new ones

• is his current ship the same one from 50 years ago?

twist from Hobbes: scavenger found all the og parts and reconstructed it - how would you define its identity?

cellular replacement

virtually every cell in human body is replaced ever 7-10 years

you do not share a single cell in common iwth you body from 10 years ago

Heraclitus on identity

no man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man

• nothing retains the same identity

how philosophers describe identity

the relation that a thing bears only to itself

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

infidiscernibility of identicals

• if any 2 things are identical, they must share all the same properties

Lumpl and Goliath

• clay is formed into goliath (statue) and lumpl

• it’s destroyed and formed back into a block of clay

• it’s no longer G bc being a statue is part of its identity, but is still lumpl because its identity has no defined shape

fungibility

the property of being interchangeable with objects of the same kind

numerical identity

when 2 “different” identities share the same properties and are one and the same

• e.g. peter parker (1a) and spiderman (1b)

• you are a baby (1a) teenager (1b) and adult (1c)

qualitative identity

when 2 or more identical things share the same properties

• GWL

• e.g. sheets of paper, identical twins

Identical

two things that share an identity relation

body theory

personal identity persists over time bc you remain in the same body from birth to death

mad scientist thought experiment

Bernard Williams

• you and I kidnapped by mad scientist

• we switch mental content to each other’s bodies

• you get to choose which body gets tortured and which body gets the cash

• answer tells you what you think about identity

memory theory

personal identity persists over time because you retain memories of yourself at different points, and each of those memories is connected to one before it

theory of multiple intelligences

devised by Howard Gardner

1. musical (rhythmic and harmonic)

2. visual (spatial)

3. verbal linguistic

4. logical (mathematical)

5. bodily (kinesthetic)

6. interpersonal

7. intrapersonal

Rene Descartes on minds

argued that only human beings possessed minds + animals are biologically machines

The Turing test

Alan Turing - to determine whether computers could ever be able to “think” like a human

• human questioner asks questions to both respondents, then determines which terminal is the computer and which is human

• if mostly unable to tell, then the computer passes

The Chinese room

John Searle

• states that computers may be able to simulate human-like responses but can’t demonstrate real understanding

• conclusion: passing the turing test did not demonstrate real intelligence

libertarian free will

you have total control over your choices in life

Determinism

you are ultimately not in full control over your actions

hard determinism

all actions that occur are the result of previous actions, and therefore no free choices can be made

theological determinism

a creator or god has determined every event that will occur

predestination: god has already determined the afterlife that awaits you (calvinism)

soft determinism / compatibilism

our choices are strongly influences by previous actions, but some freedom and responsibility still exists

(middle ground btwn free will and determinism)

incompatibilism

free will and determinism are totally at odds with each other

Sam Harris

hard determinism

• you were not free to choose that which did not occur to you to choose

• free will = flawed and incoherent concept

  • illusion

• people’s thoughts and intentions emerge from background causes

Steven Pinker

free will

• the mind is a machine

• free will = necessary illusion

• decisions are made by neurophysiological processes in the brain that respect all the laws of physics

Daniel Dennett

compatibilism

• we don’t just act for reasons; we represent our reasons

• have free will due to bio evolution

• responsibility due to sharing of wisdom?

Robert Sapolsky

hard determinism

• in reality, no free will

• all choices are influenced by variables

• looking at variables can predict actions

• we’re biological organisms: free will nothing but a myth

Michio Kaku

compatibilism

• newtonian determinism

• universe is a clock

• what you’re going to eat 10 yrs from now has already been determined

Michael Gazzaniga

compatibilism

• we can understand brains tot he nth degree but it’s not going to interfere with the fact that taking responsibility is on a social level??

• personal responsibility

• brains are automatic but ppl are free

• can’t predict the way ppl act in social situations

tao te ching

first written text of taoism by lao tzu

the book of the way and its virtue

the Taijitu

yin-yang symbol

• great pole / supreme ultimate

five parts:

1. wuji (infinite)

2. dualism (yin and yang)

3. wuxing - five agents (wood, fire, earth, metal, water)

4. conjunction of heaven and earth

5. unity / multiplicity

Lao Tzu’s 10 life lessons

1. look within and you will find everything you need

2. by letting go, you become free

3. let go of your labels if you truly want to know yourself

4. pay no attention to evil and it will crumble away

5. kindness and compassion for others will always win in the end

6. be yourself without caring what others think

7. wisdom and strength come from remaining humble

8. change is inevitable, so embrace it, even if it seems uncomfortable

9. lead to follow first if you ever wish to lead

10. always go with the flow

Buddhism

• founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the buddha)

• does not focus on the relationship btwn god and humanity

• does not include a creator god

the 4 tenets of Buddhism

1. existence is unsatisfying

2. suffering is caused by craving and attachment

3. suffering can be ended by letting go of craving and reaching enlightenment

4. the path to enlightenment is trying to live in a state of enlightenment

Dukka

suffering

Trishna

carving and attachment

Nirodha / Nirvana

enlightenment

Magga

the path to enlightenment

confucianism

also called rusim

• originated in 15th century BC China

• focused on ethics, family, and social harmony

the 4 tenets of confucianism

1. ceremony is important

2. we should treat our parents with reverence

3. we should be obedient to honorable people

4. cultivated knowledge can be more important than creativity

theism

a religion based belief

e.g. believing in specific stories, dogma, rules, etc

deism

belief that a god or creator exists and is the creator of the world but plays no role beyond that

god plays no hand in our free will

atheism

belief that there are no gods

monotheism

belief in one god

polytheism

belief in multiple gods

agnosticism

can believe in god but doesn’t claim that god is or is not real

confused

pantheism

a worship that admits or tolerates all gods

pascal’s wager

if you believe in god and there is a god, eternal joy

if you believe in god and there is no god, nothing

if you don’t believe in god and there is a god, eternal suffering

if you don’t believe in god and there is no god, nothing

watchmaker anology

argument for intelligent design

the watchmaker is more complex than the watch

intelligent design

life on earth is so complex that science and the theory of evolution can’t explain it

must have been created by a superior entity or “designer”

aims to seek scientific confirmation of miraculous interventions

the unmoved mover

the being that sets all action in motion but does not move itself

• Aristotle associated this concept with God bc an unmoved mover must be perfect

the invisible gardener

parable created by Antony Flew

• garden = there’s a gardener

• wait, but no one shows up, so gardener must be invisible

• set up traps and dogs but nothing, no gardener must be invisible and intangible and unsmellable

• what’s the difference btwn that and no gardener?

used to combat religion

says that religious people are just guessing and making things up

Anslem’s argument for the existence of God

god = that than which no greater can be conceived

• smth can exist in our minds and also in reality

• things in reality are always better than things in our imagination (only thing better than imagining living in Italy is actually living in Italy)

• if god = the greatest thing that we can conjure in our minds, the only thing greater would be god in reality

Immanuel Kant on predicates

“existence is not a predicate”

• predicates add to the essence of their subjects but can’t be used to explain their existence

  • all triangles that exist must have 3 sides but it could be that triangles don’t exist

the omni-god

omniscient: all-knowing

omnipotent: all-powerful

omnibenevolent: posessing perfect goodness

omnitemporal: exists in all places

omnipresent: exists at all times

divine impeccability

the idea that god can’t sin

• even smth god does that a human would consider a sin isn’t a sin bc everything god does is good

analogical predication

• we can’t predicate or assert anything about god bc he’s so far out of understanding, so we have to speak in analogies

  • like using cold to describe -10 celsius and absolute zero even though they are very different

• no need to worry about these puzzles about god bc it’s impossible for us to understand

existentialism

a philosophy that explores the nature of existence through the mind and feelings of the individual in a world without god or meaning

• emerged after ww2

• angst

existentialist philosophy and ww2

• lots of people died in ww2

• academics who witnessed and survived the end of the war questioned how a just god could have allowed such pain, death, and suffering to happen to so many ppl

  • Heidegger

  • Sartre

  • Camus

  • Nietzsche

  • Kierkegaard

Martin Heidegger

German existentialist

• wrote Being and Time

• introduced concept of Dasein (being there / presence)

Heidegger’s 3 diseases of the soul

1. we have forgotten to notice we are alive

2. we have forgotten that all being is connected

3. we forget to be free and live for ourselves

das sein

being

the experience of being that is peculiar to humans

das nichts

the nothing

geworfenheit

thrown-ness

describes humans’ individual existences as being thrown into the world

das gerede

the chatter / they-self

idle talk, discourse

• in idle convo, one only understands things superficially

eigentlichkeit

authenticity

living for ourselves

uneigentlichkeit

inauthenticity

you have lost or only seemingly achieved yourself

Albert Camus

French-Algerian existentialist

• the absurd

• realization that life is absurd in not an end but a beginning

• you’ll never be happy if you look for what happiness consists of, and you will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life

the absurd

the struggle to find meaning and value in a world with no meaning or value

• sisyphus

nihilism

belief that human values are baseless and life is meaningless

a more cynical and skeptical form of existentialism arguing that nothing matters

a nihilist’s philosophy on life

premise: all things are finite

premise: all things that are finite ultimately do not matter

conclusion: nothing matters

Friedrich Nietzsche

German nihilist

• atheist

• believed there were no absolute values in life

• said god is dead - meaning our idea or belief of god has vanished from society

• to live is to suffer, to survive is to find meaning in the suffering

Jean Paul Sartre

French philosopher

• believed there was no god or creator

  • therefore humans had no essence (properties that define what we are)

• humans are condemned to be free

• everything has been figured out, except how to live

an optimistic nihilist’s view on life

premise: all things are finite

premise: things that are finite ultimately do not matter

conclusion: if nothing matters, ppl should live their lives freely and happily and not worry about things that don’t matter or can’t be changed

quantum mechanics

branch of science that describes the behavior of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles

founded by Max Planck w/ his theory of quanta

quanta / quantum

the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction

wave-particle duality

concept that particles like electrons and photons can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior

superposition

theory that quanta can exist in multiple states simultaneously

a quantum particle can be in a combination of different positions at the same time

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

it’s impossible to know both the velocity and position of a particle at the same time

the multiverse

premise: it is possible for quanta to exist in 2 different places at the same time

premise: it is possible for quanta to exist in 2 different states at the same time

conclusion: there is a potentially infinite and incalculable number of interactions happening, resulting in “infinite universes

Schrodinger’s cat

Ernest Schrodinger

• a cat, flask of poison, and a radioactive source are placed in a sealed box

• don’t know if cat is alive or dead

• everytime you look, the cat is either alive or dead

  • half the time, cat is alive, other half cat is dead

• therefore before you open the box, cat is in a superposition where it’s both alive and dead

• the position is not determined until you look at it

blackbody

the idea of a physical body that absorbs all the electromagnetic radiation that hits it, regardless of frequency of angle of incidence

the Rayleigh-Jeans law

higher the frequency and therefore shorter the wavelength, the higher the radiated intensity