Child Adolescent

Piaget's 4 stages

Sensorimotor (0–2), Preoperational (2–7), Concrete Operational (7–11), Formal Operational (12+)

Sensorimotor stage

Infants learn through senses and actions; object permanence develops by end of stage

Preoperational stage

Symbolic thinking and language emerge; child is egocentric; lacks conservation

Concrete Operational stage

Logical thinking about concrete objects; masters conservation and classification

Formal Operational stage

Abstract reasoning, hypothetico-deductive reasoning, systematic problem-solving

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight (develops ~8–12 months)

Egocentrism (Piaget)

Inability to see the world from another's perspective; characteristic of preoperational stage

Conservation

Understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in shape or appearance

Classification

Ability to group objects by shared properties; develops in concrete operational stage

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Ability to think systematically about all possible outcomes; emerges in formal operational stage

Adolescent egocentrism

Teenagers' belief that others are constantly observing and judging them

Imaginary audience

Adolescent belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention

Personal fable

Adolescent belief that one is unique, invincible, and not subject to normal rules

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Cognitive development is shaped by social interaction and cultural context

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks a child can do with guidance but not yet independently

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a child work within their ZPD

Private speech

Self-directed talk children use to guide their own thinking and behavior; internalizes over time

Attention in infancy

Infants show habituation and dishabituation; joint attention emerges ~9–12 months

Attention in childhood

Selective and sustained attention improve; children become better at ignoring distractors

ADHD

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity

Deferred imitation

Reproducing a modeled action after a delay; evidence of early memory and mental representation

Infantile amnesia

Inability to recall memories from the first 2–3 years of life

False memories

Memories of events that did not occur; children are more susceptible to suggestion than adults

Executive functioning

Higher-order cognitive processes: planning, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility

Piaget vs. Vygotsky — similarities

Both emphasize active construction of knowledge and stages of development

Piaget vs. Vygotsky — differences

Piaget focuses on individual discovery; Vygotsky emphasizes social/cultural context and language

Media and physical development

Excessive screen time linked to reduced physical activity, sleep problems, and obesity risk

Educational media (young children)

Programs like Sesame Street can support vocabulary and school readiness when age-appropriate

Entertainment media effects

Linked to attention problems and reduced academic achievement when overused; varies by content

Phonology

The sound system of a language; how sounds are organized and used

Morphology

The structure of words and use of morphemes (smallest meaning units, e.g., prefixes/suffixes)

Syntax

Rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences

Pragmatics

Rules governing language use in social contexts (e.g., turn-taking, register)

Broca's area

Brain region (left frontal lobe) involved in speech production and language processing

Wernicke's area

Brain region (left temporal lobe) involved in language comprehension

Behaviorism (language)

Language is learned through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning (Skinner)

Nativism (language)

Chomsky's view that humans are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Critical period for language

Window (roughly birth to puberty) when language acquisition is easiest and most complete

Joint attention

Caregiver and infant focus on the same object; supports early word learning

Child-directed speech

Simplified, high-pitched, repetitive speech adults use with infants; supports language learning

Baby signs

Using simple gestures to communicate before verbal language is fully developed

Preverbal communication

Cooing, babbling, gestures used before first words appear (~12 months)

Vocabulary growth

Word spurt around 18 months; fast mapping allows quick word learning from context

Egocentric speech

Vygotsky's term for self-directed speech; precursor to private speech and inner speech

Metalinguistic skills

Ability to think about and analyze language itself; grows through childhood

Emergent literacy

Early reading/writing skills that develop before formal instruction

Dialogic reading

Interactive shared reading where adults prompt child participation to boost literacy

Bilingualism — benefits

Enhanced executive function, metalinguistic awareness, cognitive flexibility

Bilingualism — challenges

May have smaller vocab in each language individually; possible language mixing

Communication disorders

Disorders that affect speech, language, or hearing (e.g., stuttering, language delay)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Neurodevelopmental condition affecting social communication and characterized by restricted/repetitive behaviors

Intelligence (definition)

General mental ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to the environment

Standardized IQ tests

Measure intelligence relative to age-matched peers; examples include WISC and Stanford-Binet

Alternative assessment

Performance-based or observational methods; Gardner's multiple intelligences

Stability of IQ

IQ is moderately stable over time but influenced by genes and environment

Intellectual disability

IQ below ~70 with deficits in adaptive functioning; causes include genetic and environmental factors

Giftedness

Exceptionally high intellectual ability (IQ 130+) or exceptional talent in a domain

Creativity and intelligence

Related but distinct; creativity requires divergent thinking beyond IQ

Self-control and achievement

Strong predictor of academic success; involves delaying gratification and regulating behavior

Academic mindsets

Beliefs about ability (fixed vs. growth mindset) shape motivation and persistence

Stereotype threat

Fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group; impairs test performance

Class size effects

Smaller classes (especially in early grades) associated with better outcomes for disadvantaged students

Ability grouping

Sorting students by skill level; can widen achievement gaps if lower groups receive less instruction

Cooperative learning

Students work together toward shared goals; associated with improved outcomes and inclusion

Grade retention

Holding a student back a year; generally not effective and associated with dropout risk

Achievement gap (gender)

Girls outperform boys in reading/language; boys slightly ahead in some math areas; gap narrowing

Achievement gap (race/SES)

Persistent differences in academic outcomes linked to resource inequity and discrimination

Expectancy effects

Teachers' expectations influence student performance (Pygmalion effect)

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When a belief about a student shapes the teacher's behavior and ultimately the student's outcome

Head Start

Federal program providing early childhood education, health, and family services for low-income children

Poverty and development

Associated with chronic stress, reduced resources, lower academic achievement, and health disparities

Homelessness effects on children

Disrupted schooling, social instability, increased mental health risk, developmental delays

Child maltreatment effects

Linked to cognitive delays, emotional dysregulation, attachment problems, and academic difficulties