Introduction to Applied Linguistics and Language Acquisition

These flashcards cover the foundational concepts of Applied Linguistics, including child language development stages, learning theories (Behaviorism, Innatism, cognitivism), Second Language Acquisition models, and language policy.

Applied Linguistics

An interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with practical problems of language and communication that can be identified, analysed or solved by applying available theories, methods or results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and methodological frameworks.

AILA definition

A definition of Applied Linguistics that is broad because it includes many subfields of linguistics but narrow in that it only relates the field to linguistics.

Grammar-translation method

A teaching method focused on the translation of texts with some grammar rules in order to understand the text rather than to speak the language.

Direct method

A method where students are exposed to target oral language and learn meaning directly without translation, imitating $L1$ acquisition and requiring highly proficient teachers.

Army method

An instruction style inspired by the direct method where students imitate audio from tapes or teachers using drills to form habits; it is behaviourist in nature.

Universal Grammar

The theory that students have an innate capacity for language and need only enough exposure to set natural parameters for grammatical correctness.

Communicative competence

The requirement for students to use language in context rather than only forming grammatically correct sentences.

Ideational function

The use of language for expressing facts and ideas.

Interpersonal function

The use of language for maintaining relationships.

Textual function

The use of language for organising speech or text.

Prescriptive

Language conventions stated by the elites’ speech and what is considered the standard.

Descriptive

A simple description of the actual usage of language.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage of development (Birth–2 years) where infants build schemas through sensory experiences and motor actions; includes understanding object permanence by 8-12 months.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage (2–7 years) where children develop symbolic thought and mental imagery but struggle with logic and exhibit egocentrism.

Animism

A characteristic of the preoperational stage where children think that non-living objects, such as toys, have life and feelings.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage (7–11 years) where children apply logical rules to concrete objects, understand cause and effect, and can classify or sequence items.

Conservation

The understanding that appearance does not change the number or amount of an object.

Reversibility

The understanding that one can change a shape back to its original form.

Seriation

The ability to put things in order of size.

Formal Operational Stage

The stage (12+ years) where adolescents develop abstract, logical, and hypothetical thinking, including the ability to understand metaphors.

Telegraphic speech

Simple sentences produced by age 2 containing around 50 different words where articles, prepositions, and auxiliaries are left out.

Brown study

A research finding that 14 morphemes were acquired by children in a remarkably similar sequence, determined by interaction.

Wug test

A test using invented words to prove that language is not just a list of memorized words but involves the application of rules.

Tabula rasa

The belief that humans are born as "blank slates" with no innate mental content.

Behaviorism

A theory that language is learned through imitation and practice, involving observable stimulus-response behaviours and positive reinforcement.

Variable Ratio (VR)

A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after an unpredictable number of actions; it is the most resistant to extinction.

Variable Interval (VI)

A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after varying time intervals and actions do not speed up the reward.

Fixed Interval (FI)

A reinforcement schedule where reward is given after a fixed time period; it is the least resistant to extinction.

Bandura’s social learning theory

The theory that behaviour is learnt through observation and modelling, and learning can occur without immediate reinforcement.

Conditioning types

Includes Classical conditioning (Pavlov) and Operant conditioning (Skinner, involving reinforcement and punishment).

Innatism

The theory that children are biologically programmed for language and are born with a specific innate ability called Universal Grammar ($UG$).

Competence vs performance

Competence is the knowledge of language, while performance is its practical use.

Critical Period Hypothesis ($CPH$)

The proposal that there is a specific time frame for language acquisition, after which the brain loses plasticity and learning becomes highly unlikely.

Zone of Proximal Development ($ZPD$)

A metaphorical place where children can perform beyond their independent capability with support.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided to a learner that is gradually removed as they gain control over the material.

Private speech

Talking to oneself, viewed by Vygotsky as a thinking tool used to mediate learning.

Pruning

The process of connecting words only to relevant contexts and eliminating possible overgeneralizations.

Contrastive analysis hypothesis

The theory that mistakes in a target language are predictable based on the differences between the $L1$ and the target language.

Acquisition-learning hypothesis

One of Krashen's 5 hypotheses; it distinguishes between acquiring language through exposure and learning through conscious attention to rules.

Affective filter

One of Krashen's 5 hypotheses; it suggests that feelings such as anxiety can positively or negatively affect language acquisition.

Input hypothesis

Known as $I+1$, where $I$ is the current level of language acquired and +1 is the step beyond that level.

Declarative to procedural knowledge

The process in cognitivism where actual knowledge is converted into automatized rules.

Restructuring

Sudden bursts of progress in language learning when a learner puts different pieces of knowledge together.

Backsliding

When the systematic aspect of a learner's language incorporates too much or the wrong information.

Comprehensible output hypothesis

The idea that acquisition occurs when learners are "pushed" to produce meaningful and accurate language, not just understand it.

Interlanguage

The evolving linguistic system that a second language learner constructs while learning an $L2$, influenced by the $L1$.

Fossilisation

The stage where some incorrect linguistic forms become permanent in a learner's speech.

Integrative motivation

A type of motivation where the learner wants to learn a language to be integrated into a specific community.

Instrumental motivation

A type of motivation where the language is used as a tool, such as for passing a test.

Complexity/Chaos Theory

A theory from Larsen-Freeman stating that languages are complex, dynamic systems connected with context, and where each learner is unique.

Corpus planning

Attempts to influence language by affecting the code itself, such as standardising grammar, spelling, or introducing new terminology.

Status planning

Attempts to increase or decrease the prestige and use of a language or variety, such as the "Speak Good English" campaign.

Linguistic fingerprin6ng

The linguistic impressions created by a given speaker or writer used in forensic linguistics.

Hapax

Words that are used only once in a text, valuable for detecting plagiarism.