Ancient Mediterranean History Final

Latium

ID: Region in Italy

Date: 8th c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Fact: Contains Rome and the Tiber River, and the ethic group of the Latins, as well as a fordable point across the Tiber with multiple trade points.

Romulus

ID: First King of Rome

Date: 8th c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Fact: Mother, Reya Silvia, was a vestige virgin, and niece of a King, became pregnant by Mars, God of War, bearing twins. Uncle exposes the boys by sending them on a raft on the Tiber river, a she-wolf weans them before found by a Shepard. Clear royal identity, they found the city of Rome, then Romulus kills Remus.

Virtus

ID: Cultural feature of Roman society

Date: 8th c. BCE

Location: Rome, Italy

Fact: Quality of being a man, Gloria as highest (winning a military battle, parade around city) lead to competitive society between neighbors and ancestors.

Struggle of the Orders

ID: Political Struggle

Date: 5 c. BCE - 3rd c. BCE

Location: City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Between the Plebeians (poor) and the Patricians (wealthy), began with the first Succession of the Plebs, created pathways in the government for Plebs to create and influence law, such as the Tribune of Plebs, and access to the consulship.

Pyrrhus

ID: A King

Date: 3rd c. BCE

Location: Epirus, Northwestern Greece, Invaded Italy

Fact: He invaded Italy, winning two battles. Inspired the revelation that Rome was costly to defeat, as the population density meant they could keep fighting despite loss.

Confederation of Italy

ID: Colonies in Italy

Dates: 4th c. - 1st c. BCE

Location: Italy

Facts: Included a series of treaties creating colonies under Rome, providing Rome money and troops, but sharing in the spoils. There are multiple distinctions for colonies, being colonies of full Roman citizens, colonies of Roman citizens who could not vote, colonies with Latin Rights, and 'double' colonies (with both local and Roman leadership.)

Tophet

ID: Religious Monument / Site

Date: 3rd c. BCE

Location: Carthage, central Mediterranean

Facts: Believed to be sites for child sacrifices, with burnt child remains found around the tophets, though disputed by modern archeologists. Ba'al Hammon is their primary god, for whom most tophets were constructed, who was praised for the rain alongside agriculture.

Hannibal

ID: Carthaginian Military General

Date: 3rd c. BCE - 2nd c. BCE

Location: Born in Carthage, travelled across the Mediterranean

Facts: Invaded Italy during the Second Punic War, crossing the Alps into Italy, with his greatest victory being the Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) massacring the Roman forces in a sort amount of time, significantly weakening Rome. Additionally, he attacked Roman colonies in an attempt to break them from the Confederation of Italy although many refused to break from Rome.

Scipico Africanas

ID: Roman General

Dates: 3rd c. BCE - 2nd c. BCE

Location: Italy

Facts: Got fame from the Second Punic War, got the name Africanas by chasing Hannibal out of Italy to Africa, defeating Carthage. That victory establishes Rome as the premier power in the Western Mediterranean. Carthaginians as the only ones to get close to defeating Rome.

Roman Revolution

ID: Transition from the Republican form of government to the Imperial

Date: 2nd to 1st c. BCE

Location: City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Romans attempted to pretend the revolution did not happen, the Senatorial class and elites of Roman had less of a say in government/less influence, but the efficiency of the administration of the providences increases.

Mare Nostrum

ID: Political Propaganda for Roman control of the Mediterranean Sea

Date: 2nd c. BCE

Location: Mediterranean Sea

Facts: Latin terms for "our sea." Examples being when Rhodes acted in a way that displeased Rome, who then made Dilos a duty-free port, destroying Rhodes economy. Additionally, a Roman ambassador ended a war in Egypt by telling a Seleucid King to simply go home.

Hellenism

ID: The Influence of the Greek on Roman Culture

Dates: 4th c. BCE - 1st c. BCE

Location: Eastern Mediterranean

Facts: Bottom-up cultural influence, began with Apoikia in the 8th c. BCE after the capture of Greece. Roman elites would know Greek and Latin as a status symbol, as Greek slaves would tutor the Roman youth, introducing Greek literature. Greek medical theories became popular alongside Greek architecture such as columns and use of concrete. Many thought of the Greek as too effeminate.

Legio

ID: The Calling Up of Soldiers (military formation)

Date: 2nd c. BCE

Location:

Fact: Men would be called to serve within legions, which exercised the best organization and discipline as compared to other armies. Each legion could be broken into units, with generals in charge of each unit, harboring the ability for Moree complex technical decisions. Roman Legionary Marching Camps were constructed on the most defensible position, with centuries keeping guard at night. Decimate means the killing of 1-in-10 as a punishment for the legion, as a random soldier would be selected from each unit to be beaten to death. Legions would be offered rewards for good service, such as spoils, honor, and promotions.

Gracchi Brothers

ID: Roman Politicians, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Date: 2nd c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Sons of Plebeian nobilis, with their father being a consul and senator, Tiberius was first elected a tribune of the Plebs, proposing land reforms, then taking shortcuts to avoid vetos and violating term limits, with the Senate then executing him and his supporters on accusations of acting like a King. Gaius then follows his brother in becoming tribune, pushing for the same reforms, but when his follower kills a slave, Gaius is labeled a revolutionary and is killed alongside his followers by the Senate through the use of Senatus Consultus Ultimum. Their deaths mark the end of the Roman Republic and beginning of widespread political violence.

Senatus Consultum Ultimum

ID: Declaration by the Roman Senate

Date: 2 c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Emergency declaration made by the Senate as an attempt to make Senate advice binding, overriding civil rights in favor of martial law, introducing quasi-dictatorship. It intensifies the cycle of political violence that ends the Republic, used as justification of the Gracchi Brother's deaths.

Marius

ID: Roman General and Politician

Date: 2nd c. BCE

Location: Western Mediterranean

Facts: Took opportunity in Numidia to gain military power. The war with Jugurtha led to him being elected consul, with Marius then winning the war, although he was a poor peacetime politician. Then Rome went to war with the Germans in the north, as Marius is elected to consul again, holding the title for three years and gaining unheard of popularity. Introduced consistent legions and units under a numerical system, as he regarded generals ahead of politicians, given expanses of land to soldiers.

Sulla

ID: Roman General and Politician

Date: 2nd c. - 1st c. BCE

Location: Italy, mainly The City of Rome

Facts: Accused Marius of claiming too much glorius from the defeat of Jugurtha as Sulla had orchestrated the troops. Fought in the Social War while Marius fought in the North, was elected to consulship twice and revived the dictatorship to maintain military and political power. After Marius murdered a tribute speaking in favor of Sulla, they fought for eighteen months, with Sulla as a victor upon Marius' death. Sulla then executed large amounts of prisoners of war and issued the Sulla Inscriptions allowing him to kill off political rivals and the wealthy. Took power from the tributes and Senate, offering lasting changes on banking and the power of the magistrates.

Pompey

ID: Roman Politician and Consul

Date: 2nd c. - 1st c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean

Facts: Exceedingly rich and provided legions for Sulla, and ended a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in the South alongside Marcus Cassius. The two then joined forced, using threats to gain the consulship then undoing many of Sulla's acts. Pompey campaigned against the pirates, given control of the Mediterranean Sea for five years. He spread Roman control, winning many victories, gaining plunder, and entering the Temple of Judea. Cassius feared Pompey's return, taking Julius Caesar as an ally.

Julius Caesar

ID: Roman Politician

Date: 1st c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Believed to have been captured by pirates in his youth, then raising a campaign against his captures to reclaim his ransom and gain political influence. Elected consul alongside Pompey and Cassius as part of the "First" Triumvirate, then went on to conquer Gaul. Cassius died in Persia while a marriage alliance fell through between Cassius and Pompey. Caesar crosses the Rubicon river in 49 BCE, with Pompey fleeing from the impending the Civil War. Caesar defeats Pompey in Greece, but Pompey lives and escapes to Egypt where he is then killed, but allows Caesar to form an alliance with Cleopatra, forming an alliance between Rome and Egypt. Caesar is made dictator for life, but contrasts Sulla as a leader. A conspiracy emerged in 44 BCE, stabbing Caesar during the Senate on March 15th.

Actium

ID: Naval Battle

Date: 1st c. BCE

Location: Ionian Sea, Greece

Facts: Antony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian at sea. A great battle amid a war declared on Cleopatra, leading to Cleopatra and Antony's suicides, making Octavian the clear ruler of Rome. Majority of Antony and Cleopatra's soldiers defected to Octavian upon defeat.

Flavian Dynasty

ID: A Related Set of Monarchs

Date: 1st c. CE

Location: Across the Mediterranean

Facts: Brought stability to Rome after the Civil War (Year of the Four Emperors,) Pompeii explored under the reign of Titus. They built the Colosseum.

Aeneid

ID: Piece of Latin Literature

Date: 1st c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Modeled on The Iliad and the Odyssey, centers on the Trojan Aeneaes from the Iliad who travels to Italy and engages in a battle between the Trojans and the Latin to found a new line of Kings. Claim Trojan genealogy founding of the Roman people. The epic poem legitimized the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, glorified traditional Roman values and was favored by Augustus, therefore circulated before Virgil had the chance to rewrite it. Hailed as one of the greatest pieces of Latin Literature.

Augustan Settlement

ID: Set of Constitutional Changes

Date: 1st c. BCE

Location: The City of Rome Italy

Facts: Under the guise of returning power to the Senate, Octavian renounced extraordinary power, but continued to hold sole power, furthering the power of the emperor. Octavian maintains the power of a tribune (legislation and veto) while repeatedly being elected consul. He additionally named himself chief priest, with his body as sacred to deter assassination attempts. He took control of the providences, as his representatives control most of the land along the frontier with around 60 legions. The Senate renamed Octavian "Imperator," also title also used for generals. As chief priest of Rome, he also took the name "Augustus" meaning Reverent.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty

ID: Related Line of Roman Emperors

Date: 1st c. BCE - 1st c. CE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Includes Gaius Julius Caesar, his stepson Tiberius who was a capable military commander, securing the German and Danube frontiers, known as a "solider's solider." He was followed by Caligula, the great grandson of Augustus as well as a Claudian through his father. Caligula, a childhood nickname meaning "soldier's boot," known for his paranoia and cruelty, he was eventually stabbed to death by a successful conspiracy. Claudius, Caligula's paternal uncle, was made emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Despite his physical disability he was an extremely capable administrator and builder, with the empire greatly expanding under his reign. Nero, the last in the line, was adopted by his great-uncle, and assumed the throne at sixteen. Favoring artistic expression, he initially left ruling to his mother Agrippia the Younger, but after paranoia led him to execute his step-brother, Nero then had his mother killed. In power when Rome burned in 64 CE, putting blame on the Christians to defect blame. He is remembered as a tyrannical ruler. Lead to the year of the four emperors.

Year of the Four Emperors

ID: Roman Civil War

Date: 1 c. CE

Location: The City of Rome, Italy

Facts: Reveals the Secret of Empire, with the secret being that you do not have to be in the city to rule, part of the fiction that it is still a Republic and not the soldiers. Legions would name Emperors. Within months, each emperors would kill their predecessor.

Trajan

ID: Roman Emperor

Date: 1st c. - 2nd c. CE

Location: The City of Rome, Campaigned throughout Mediterranean

Facts: Emperor at the time of Rome's greatest territorial extent, known as the soldier-emperor. Regarded as Optimus Princeps or 'best ruler.' Known for his alimenta program providing food, funding, and education to poor children- a model philanthropic welfare program. Additionally, he improved the port of Ostia and other infrastructure, as well as the Forum of Trajan which included an extensive library and Trajan's Column.

Sassanian Dynasty

ID: Related Line of Persian Emperors

Date: 5th c. - 7th c. CE

Location: Eastern Mediterranean

Facts: Founded by Ardashir I, the House of Sasan looked to restore the legacy of the Achaemenid Empire. Achieved unification and legitimacy through a central bureaucratic government and revitalization of Zoroastrianism. They constructed many monuments and greatly expanded Persian territory amid the Roman-Persian Wars. Fell to the rise of Islam and conquests initiated by Muhammad.

Third-Century Anarchy

ID: Period of Crisis and Military Anarchy

Date: 3rd c. CE

Location: Across the Mediterranean

Facts: At least 22 Roman Emperors named by their barracks, with the army holding the power to declare the emperor. Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine while the Persians pressured the East. In order to pay their armies, generals debased the currency, leading to economic collapse. A plague additionally hit Rome.

Diaspora

ID: Migration (both voluntary and forced) related to the Jewish

Dates: 8th c. BCE to 2 c. CE

Location: Across Mediterranean

Fact: Means scattering of people, early diasporas caused by the Assyrians, then later the Greek and Romans. The latest came from two revolts in Judea, with Roman restrictions then driving the Jews from Judea.

Gospel

ID: Christian Holy Text

Date: 1st c. CE

Location: Eastern Mediterranean, then Spread Across Mediterranean

Facts: Considered the 'Word of God' meaning Good News, the Gospel is the centerpiece of Christianity, promising forgiveness of sin and eternal life in heaven aligned with Jesus' discussion of the Kingdom of God, presenting a contrast to the religious ambition of returning to the Holy Land. Contains the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

Tetrarchy

ID: The Rule of the Four Emperors

Date: 3rd c. - 4th c. CE

Location: Roman Empire, Across the Mediterranean

Facts: Established under Diocletian, meaning the power of four, with two Augustus as the senior emperors who adopt their Caesars as junior emperors to assume the Augustus title, a relationship often fortified by a marriage alliance. This way, an emperor would always be a week away, avoiding one emperor being stretched across the frontier. Providence were thought of as too large and were divided into diocese, increasing the amount of government officials and the money needed to sustain them. Contracted mercenaries replaced traditional soldiers, but were wildly disloyal.

Constantinople

ID: Roman Capital City

Date: 4th c. CE

Location: Along the Black Sea

Facts: New Roman Capital City, originally titled 'New Rome.' Also known as Constanopolis, or Constantine's City. The Theodosian Walls fortified the city, with the double walls provided a near impenetrable defense. Additionally, the city acted as a bridge between continents, sitting between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, becoming a major trade center.

Julian "the Apostate"

ID: Roman Emperor

Date: 4th c. CE

Location: Across the Mediterranean

Facts: Upped defenses on the Rhine river as Caesar under Constantine, despite living a sheltered life under the threat of political violence. Quickly amassing favor, his troops proclaimed Julian Augustus, despite Constantius attempting to maintain power. Julian marched his legions from the East to meet Constantius in the West, but Constantius dies before meeting Julian. Amid divisions in trinitarian verses aryan theology, Julian affirms his belief in paganism. This offended many, with 50% of the population identifying as Christian, giving Julian the title of "Apostate" meaning to openly reject their religion, often in anger. Despite spreading full religious tolerance, he spent liberally on a pagan revival. Prohibited Christians from teaching, specifically Greco-Roman Classics. Julian was the most literate of any emperor, but was mortally wounded by a spear when fighting the Persians.

Adrianople

ID: A Battle Between the Roman Empire and the Goths

Date: 4th c. CE

Location: Outside Constantinople, Argon Sea

Facts: Large amount of Goths came from the North across the Danube River. With the Valens leaving to fight Persia, corrupt officials were left to manage the Goth's migration. Although a limited amount of Goth's were meant to migrate, the officials did not watch the numbers, neglected to take their weapons, then mistreated them (limited food and selling their children into slavery.) The Goths rebelled causing Valens to take the troops out of Persia, but again their campaign was mismanaged, and the troops were slaughtered. Although the Goths couldn't get past Constantinople's walls, they made their way into Greece where they remained.

Council of Constantinople

ID: Meeting of Christian Bishops

Date: 4th c. CE

Location: Constantinople

Facts: Called by Theodosius I as the Second Ecumenical Council. Strengthened Trinitarian Doctrine as one God in there persons being the Father, Son, and The Holy Spirit. Established Nicene Christianity as the official religion of the state, but did not force the Jewish to convert. The council outlawed pagan traditions and all public meetings of Greco-Roman religion.

Gothic Sack of Rome

ID: Capture of a city, Rome by the Goths

Date: 5th c. CE

Location: Rome, Italy

Fact: The Goths came from the East, who had been settled in the Roman Empire, who's leader Alaric, occasional ally to Rome, invaded Italy three times, then sacked Rome for the first time in eight hundred years. Rome never fully recovered from the sack, psychologically. Century would end without a Western Empire. Inspired Augustan to write the City of God.

Romulus Agustulus

ID: Last Emperor of the West

Date: 5th c. CE

Location: Across Mediterranean

Facts: Assumed the throne around twelve, placed there by his father as a figurehead. Although, when his father fell out of favor, Agustulus was disposed. He was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor as Emperor of the West.

Council of Chalcedon

ID: Christian Gathering

Date: 5th c. CE

Location: Constantinople

Facts: Discussed the relationship of the divine and human natures of Jesus, arriving at the conclusion that he contains both. Although called to end disputes between bishops, with this idea widely accepted, Syria and Egypt rejected the duality of Jesus, creating new churches and facing prosecution. Increased use of icons and imagery to teach theology. Called during the time of Pulcheria and Marius.

Asceticism

ID: Theological Belief

Date: 4th c. - 7th c. CE

Location: Across the Mediterranean

Facts: Meaning tradition or preparation, including physical strength, intellect, and spirituality, increasing pride in poverty or simplicity. Lead to the creation of Monastic Cells in the desert and the rise of hermits such as Antony the Great and Pachomius, with the latter founding the first monastery. New option for the rich and poor to change their lives through voluntary exile, with Monasteries emerging in the 4th c. CE, presenting a change in what it meant to be Christian as well as the amount of Christians in the Mediterranean.

Justinian

ID: Byzantine Emperor

Date: 6th c. CE

Location: Constantinople, Eastern Europe

Facts: With a lot of money in the treasury, Justinian invested in great building projects such as the Hagia Sophia. He continued to codify Roman Law, to avoid contradictions, systemizing the laws into Corpus Iuris Civilis. Furthered reconquests across the Mediterranean, looking to the Vandal Kingdom and the Italian Peninsula, but eventually left the empire larger but weaker.

Ummah

ID: Followers of Islam

Date: 7th c. CE

Location: Arabian Peninsula

Facts: Emphasized the bond of Ummah transcends all other bonds, where the Prophet is the priest, general, and King, all in one. Followed the Five Pillars of Islam, being Salat, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj.