Week 5 - Crime and Violence

What are the four larger social problems that influence crime according to the chapter?

Poverty, isolation, family breakdown, and domestic violence.

What is the U.S. murder rate per 100,000 compared to Canada's rate?

U.S.: 4.7 per 100,000; Canada: 1.5 per 100,000.

What is the U.K. murder rate per 100,000?

1.0 per 100,000.

What explanation does the UNODC offer for patterns in murder rates?

Higher murder rates correspond with higher rates of robbery reported in crime victimization surveys; greater economic disparities lead to higher rates of violent crimes including robbery and murder.

According to Canadian data from 2006, what percentage of homicide victims knew their attackers?

83 percent.

According to Canadian data from 2006, what percentage of homicide victims were killed by a family member?

A little more than one-third (approximately 34-35%).

According to Canadian data from 2006, what percentage of homicide victims were killed by an acquaintance?

Another one-third (approximately 34-35%).

What are the four facts about crime that are true throughout the world?

1. Crime is ubiquitous (no country without crime), 2. Most countries have the same components in their criminal justice systems (police, courts, prisons), 3. Adult males make up the largest category of crime suspects worldwide, 4. Theft (property crime) is the most common crime committed worldwide, while violent crime is relatively rare.

What are INTERPOL's six global priority areas?

1. Drugs and criminal organizations (including drug trafficking), 2. Financial and high-tech crimes (counterfeiting, fraud, cybercrime), 3. Trafficking of fugitives, 4. Public safety and countering terrorism, 5. Trafficking in human beings, 6. Fighting corruption (enforcing the rule of law).

What is transnational crime?

Organized criminal activity across one or more national borders.

What did Shelley (2007) argue about transnational crime?

Transnational crime will be a defining issue of the 21st century for policy makers, as these crime groups are major beneficiaries of globalization, taking advantage of increased travel, trade, rapid money movements, telecommunications, and computer links.

What is the simple definition of crime?

Any act that violates the criminal law.

What are the three major types of statistics used to measure crime?

Official statistics, victimization surveys, and self-report offender surveys.

What is the Canadian Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR)?

A system developed by Statistics Canada and the Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police in 1962 to provide a measure of reliability for crime statistics through standardized procedures for collecting and reporting crime information.

How many specific categories of crime and offences does the UCR system collect information on?

91.

How many municipal police departments, services, and agencies across Canada provide information to the UCR system?

More than 400.

What are three shortcomings of official crime statistics?

Many incidents go unreported, police fail to record all crime reports they receive, some rates may be exaggerated due to public, political, or organizational pressures.

What do victimization surveys ask?

People if they have been victims of crime.

When was the first truly national victimization survey done in Canada?

1988 (General Social Survey by Statistics Canada).

How many people aged 15 and older were interviewed by telephone for Statistics Canada's 1999 General Social Survey (GSS)?

26,000 people.

According to AuCoin (2005), why does the rate of violent victimization increase for youth as they age?

Because youth increase their use of alcohol and other drugs and are subject to less parental supervision as they get older, exposing themselves to increased victimization risk.

What percentage of all victims of sexual assault are youth?

61 percent.

What percentage of sexual assaults against youth occur at the hands of a family member?

60 percent.

What do self-report offender surveys ask?

Offenders about their criminal behaviour (may include prison populations or general population such as university students).

According to Felson and Boba (2010), what wide range of criminal acts rarely get reported to police?

Cannabis use, underage drinking, shoplifting, private assaults, and many small instances of fraud.

According to Durkheim and other structural-functionalists, how is crime functional for society?

It strengthens group cohesion (when people come together to express outrage over an offense, they develop a tighter bond of solidarity).

According to Merton's strain theory, what happens when legitimate means of acquiring culturally defined goals are limited by the structure of society?

The resulting strain may lead to crime.

What are Merton's five types of adaptation?

Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.

What is conformity in Merton's strain theory?

Individuals accept both the culturally defined goals and the socially legitimate means of achieving them.

What is innovation in Merton's strain theory?

Individuals accept the goals of society but reject or lack the socially legitimate means of achieving them (the mode of adaptation most associated with criminal behaviour).

What is ritualism in Merton's strain theory?

Individuals accept a lifestyle of hard work but reject the cultural goal of monetary rewards; they go through the motions but are not committed to accumulating wealth or power.

What is retreatism in Merton's strain theory?

Individuals reject both the cultural goal of success and the socially legitimate means of achieving it; they withdraw from society and may become alcoholics, drug addicts, or vagrants.

What is rebellion in Merton's strain theory?

Individuals reject both culturally defined goals and means and substitute new goals and means (e.g., using social or political activism to replace personal wealth with social justice and equality).

According to subcultural theory, why do certain groups have higher rates of crime and violence?

Certain groups or subcultures in society have values and attitudes that are conducive to crime and violence.

According to Elijah Anderson (1994), what survival code do many inner-city youths live by?

Gaining the respect of others through violence (the tougher you are and the more others fear you, the more respect you have in the community).

According to Hirschi's control theory (1969), what constrains some individuals from violating social norms?

A strong social bond between individuals and the social order.

What are Hirschi's four elements of the social bond?

Attachment to significant others, commitment to conventional goals, involvement in conventional activities, and belief in the moral standards of society.

According to Laub and colleagues (1998), what contributes to the cessation of a criminal career?

A good marriage.

According to conflict theories of crime, what is inevitable whenever two groups have differing degrees of power?

Deviance is inevitable; the more inequality in a society, the greater the crime rate.

According to the conflict perspective, who defines what is criminal?

Those in power; definitions reflect the interests of the ruling class.

According to conflict theorists, what do rape myths (e.g., "good girls" don't get raped, women secretly want to be raped) perpetuate?

The belief that women are to blame for their own victimization, thereby exonerating the offender.

According to symbolic interactionist labelling theory, what is deviance?

Not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an "offender."

What is primary deviance?

Deviant behaviour committed before a person is caught and labelled as an offender.

What is secondary deviance?

Deviance that results from being caught and labelled; the deviant label becomes the person's "master status."

According to Sutherland's differential association theory (1939), how do individuals learn criminal behaviour?

Through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motivations for criminal behaviour.

According to Belknap and Holsinger (2006), what must be central to the study of causes of delinquency in feminist criminology?

The differences between girls' and boys' experiences and realities, and patriarchy must be central.

What did Bruckert and Hannem (2013) argue about the criminalization of sex work in Canada?

That positioning sex workers as legitimate labourers would entitle them to the same rights and protections as any other Canadian worker.

What is the difference between decriminalization and legalization of sex work according to Bruckert and Hannem?

Decriminalization removes sex work from formal regulation under the law altogether; legalization treats prostitution as a business but continues to impose traditional stigmas and mandatory health tests on sex workers.

According to Bernstein (2010), what is the problem with the contemporary fixation on sex-trade trafficking?

It diverts attention from more common, more pervasive suffering of vulnerable persons (sweatshop labor, agricultural work, corporate crime) and constitutes a moral panic that does not address larger impediments to well-being.

What percentage of federally incarcerated women reported childhood physical abuse according to the Canadian Mental Health Association (2003)?

68 percent.

What percentage of federally incarcerated women reported childhood sexual abuse according to the CMHA (2003)?

54 percent (90% of Aboriginal women reported physical abuse; 61% reported sexual abuse).

What was the Female Refugees Act of 1897?

An act that defined women between ages 16 and 35 as "incorrigible" for anything from promiscuity or pregnancy outside marriage to public drunkenness; not repealed until 1964.

What is the difference between conventional (street) crime and nonconventional crime?

Conventional crime refers to traditional illegal behaviours most people think of as crime (murder, sexual assault, assault, armed robbery, break and enter, theft). Nonconventional crime includes organized crime, white-collar crime, corporate crime, and computer crime.

What percentage of all crimes reported to police in 2008 were violent crimes?

20 percent.

How many homicides were reported in Canada in 2008?

611 (rate of 1.8 per 100,000 population).

According to Hartnagel (2012), what does the rise in reported crime from the 1960s to 1990s correlate with?

The age of baby boomers reaching various ages of opportunity for different levels of crime; the drop-off since correlates with smaller successive generations.

What are the three levels of non-sexual assault in Canada?

Level 1 (common assault - least serious), Level 2 (assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm), Level 3 (aggravated assault - most serious).

What is acquaintance rape?

A sexual assault committed by someone the victim knows (most likely to occur but least likely to be reported and most difficult to prosecute).

What percentage of sexual assaults are estimated to be reported each year?

Only 1 in 10 (10%).

What is a vice crime (victimless crime)?

An illegal activity that has no complaining party, such as the use of illegal drugs, communicating for the purposes of prostitution, and illegal gambling.

Is prostitution illegal in Canada?

No, but it is an offence to publicly communicate with another person for the purpose of buying or selling sexual services.

What is the Criminal Code definition of a "criminal organization"?

Any group, association, or other body consisting of five or more persons, whether formally or informally organized, having as one of its primary activities the commission of an indictable offence for which the maximum punishment is imprisonment for five years or more.

How much money is estimated to be laundered annually in Canada according to the Organized Crime Impact Study?

Between $5 billion and $17 billion.

What is corporate crime?

Includes both occupational crime (individuals committing crimes in their employment) and criminal business practices (corporations violating the law to maximize profit).

What was the Bre-X scandal?

A Calgary-based company where the geologist salted core samples with gold to make a worthless mining property seem valuable, costing investors $6 billion.

What is churning in insurance?

A racket where customers were sweet-talked into using the cash value of their old insurance policies to pay premiums for new, more expensive policies without being warned that the upgrading would eat up their equity.

What is corporate violence?

The production of unsafe products and the failure of corporations to provide safe working environments for employees; results from negligence, the pursuit of profit at any cost, and intentional violations of health, safety, and environmental regulations.

In the GM gas tank case, what was the cost-benefit analysis?

Settling lawsuits for fatal burns ($2.40 per car) was cheaper than changing gas tank placement ($8.59 per car).

What was the Westray mine disaster?

A 1992 explosion at the Westray coal mine in Pictou County, Nova Scotia, that killed 26 miners; an official inquiry report was entitled "The Westray Story: A Predictable Path to Disaster."

What is computer crime?

Any violation of the law in which a computer is the target or the means of criminal activity (e.g., hacking, identity theft).

What is the peak age of offending for both violent and property offences?

Age 16 to 17 (accounts for 55.8% of all crimes committed by youth).

What has happened to youth incarceration rates since the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) replaced the Young Offenders Act (YOA)?

Incarceration rates dropped from a high of 27% in 2002-03 to 17% in 2006-07.

According to the John Howard Society (1999), why has Canada's crime rate decreased?

The baby boom generation (high-risk years 1960s) has been replaced by the baby bust years (1967-1979), creating a smaller pool of people at greatest risk.

What percentage of the adult population in Canada are Aboriginal peoples, and what percentage of admissions to federal prisons do they account for?

3% of the population; 18% of admissions to federal prisons (27% of provincial custody, 30% of women in federal prisons).

What does section 718.2 of the Canadian Criminal Code specify regarding Aboriginal offenders?

All available sanctions other than imprisonment that are reasonable should be considered for all offenders, with particular attention to the circumstances of Aboriginal offenders.

According to the 2009 GSS, what percentage of Canadians said they would walk alone after dark more often if they felt safer from crime?

39% overall; 41% of women vs. 35% of men.

What was the total annual cost of crime in Canada according to the Department of Justice (2005)?

Approximately $46 billion (policing, courts, corrections total closer to $10 billion; does not include white-collar crime, tax evasion, or stock market manipulation).

According to the 2000 International Crime Victimization Survey, what percentage of Canadians report feeling very or fairly safe when walking alone in their area after dark?

83 percent.

What were the findings of the Perry Preschool Project?

The experimental group (academically oriented interventions, home visits, parent-teacher conferences) had better grades, higher rates of high-school graduation, lower rates of unemployment, and fewer arrests compared to the control group.

According to Gest and Friedman (1994), what reduction in juvenile crimes and crack use did housing projects with youth programs report?

13% fewer juvenile crimes; 25% decrease in crack use.

What is the deterrence theory of criminal justice?

The use of harm or the threat of harm to prevent unwanted behaviours; assumes people rationally choose to commit crime, weighing rewards and consequences.

When was capital punishment last used in Canada?

1962 (formally abolished in 1976, though federal government retains right to bring it back).

What percentage of Canadians in a 1943 Gallup poll were in favour of capital punishment?

80 percent.

What percentage of Canadians in a 1995 poll believed the courts did not deal harshly enough with criminals?

85 percent.

According to Bibby's 2000 Project Canada survey, what percentage of Canadian adults agree that "the death penalty should sometimes be used"?

74 percent.

Between 1973 and 1999, how many death-row inmates in the United States were released when new evidence supported their innocence?

76.

According to a report by the (U.S.) Justice Project ("A Broken System"), what percentage of capital sentences reviewed over a 23-year period contained serious, reversible error?

Nearly seven out of ten (70%).

How much did David Milgaard receive in compensation for his wrongful conviction?

$9.25 million (plus $750,000 for his mother).

According to the International Center for Prison Studies, what was Canada's incarceration rate per 100,000 population in 2001?

116 per 100,000.

According to Correctional Service Canada, what is the annual average cost of incarceration for male prisoners?

$79,555.

According to Correctional Service Canada, what is the annual average cost of incarceration for female prisoners?

$169,399.

Why is the per capita cost of incarcerating women higher than for men?

There are far fewer incarcerated women, yet they still require the same material and personnel resources for housing and rehabilitation as men do.

What is restorative justice?

An approach to justice that focuses on dealing with the harmful effects of crime by engaging victims, offenders, and the community in a process of reparation and healing.

When was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted?

December 10, 1948.

How many articles does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights contain?

Thirty.

What is the estimated range of people held in slavery today?

Between 20.9 million and 45.8 million people (more than any other point in world history).

What percentage of human trafficking victims are women and girls?

Approximately 71%.

What percentage of female trafficking victims are minors?

Up to 50%.

How much money does human trafficking generate annually?

An estimated USD $150.2 billion per year.

What chance do traffickers face of ever being prosecuted?

A mere 1% chance.