Safa- Courts

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Government cannot sponsor or endorse religious activity in public schools — even if participation is voluntary.

Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

The Court ruled that these laws fostered an "excessive government entanglement with religion," thereby establishing the three-part Lemon Test used to evaluate such laws
- Secular(non-religious) purpose
- Neither advance or inhibit religion
- No excessive government entanglement with religion

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

The Court sided with the Amish; strong protection for religious practices; states must show a compelling interest to limit religion.

Schenck v. US (1919)

First Amendment does not protect speech that creates a "clear and present danger" such as obstructing military recruitment during wartime.

West Virginia Board of Education v. Barnette(1943)

Forcing students to salute the flag is a violation of 1st amendment free speech, and is therefore unconstitutional.

Tinker v Des Moines Independent Community Schools (1969)

Students do not "shed their constitutional rights... at the schoolhouse gate." Speech is protected unless it causes a "substantial disruption."

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Established the "Imminent Lawless Action" test. Speech can only be prohibited if it is directed at inciting or producing imminent lawless action.

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

Flag burning is "symbolic speech" protected by the First Amendment.

New York Times v. US (1971)

Government lost because it didn't conflict with national security; established a heavy presumption against "prior restraint" (censorship before publication).

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Corporate funding of independent political broadcasts in candidate elections cannot be limited; corporations have free speech rights.

DC v. Heller (2008)

The 2nd Amendment protects an individual's right to possess a firearm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

Incorporated the 2nd Amendment, making the individual right to bear arms applicable to the states via the 14th Amendment.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Though Gitlow's conviction was upheld, this was the first case to use the 14th Amendment to apply the Bill of Rights (specifically Free Speech) to the states (Incorporation Doctrine).

New Jersey v. T.L.O (1985)

School officials do not need a warrant or "probable cause" to search students—only "reasonable suspicion."

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Established the "Exclusionary Rule"—evidence obtained illegally cannot be used in court.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

States must provide an attorney to defendants who cannot afford one (6th Amendment right applied to states).

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Police must inform suspects of their rights before questioning ("Miranda Rights").

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Upheld segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine.

Brown v. Board of Education I (1954)

Overturned Plessy, ruling that racial segregation in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause.; segregated schools are "inherently unequal."

Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)

Ordered desegregation to happen with "all deliberate speed."

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. US (1964)

Government can use the Commerce Clause to ban discrimination in private businesses because their actions affect interstate travel and commerce

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

The Court ruled that while race can be one factor in admissions to promote diversity, strict racial quotas are unconstitutional.

Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

Struck down sodomy laws; protected the right to private consensual conduct.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

The 14th Amendment guarantees the right to same-sex marriage nationwide

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Established a constitutional Right to Privacy via "penumbras" of the Bill of Rights.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

The Right to Privacy protects a woman's right to an abortion. (Note: Overturned in 2022).

Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)

The Court reaffirmed the "essential holding" of Roe but replaced the trimester system with the "Undue Burden" test—states can regulate abortion as long as they don't create a "substantial obstacle" to the woman.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Redistricting is a "justiciable" issue. It led to the principle of "One person, one vote."

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

While the intent was noble, districts that are "so extremely irregular" that they separate voters by race violate the Equal Protection Clause.

Korematsu v. US (1944)

Upheld the internment, stating that "military necessity" outweighed Korematsu's individual rights.

US v. Nixon (1974)

Executive privilege is not absolute. It does not protect a President from withholding evidence in a criminal trial.

buckley v. Valeo (1976)

While the government can limit contributions to candidates, it cannot limit how much a candidate spends of their own money, as spending money is a form of free speech.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

(1) Congress has "implied powers" to create a bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause, and (2) states cannot tax federal institutions ("The power to tax is the power to destroy").

US v. Lopez (1995)

It ruled that carrying a gun in a school zone is not an "economic activity" that affects interstate commerce, limiting Congress's power under the Commerce Clause.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Madison was wrong, but also ruled that the law Marbury used to sue was unconstitutional. This established Judicial Review—the Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Bush v. Gore (2000)

The differing standards of manual counting across counties violated the Equal Protection Clause. The recount was stopped, making Bush the winner.

Dred Scott v. Sanford (1957)

(1) Black people were not citizens and had no right to sue, and (2) the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because Congress couldn't deprive slave owners of their "property."