Psych 1002 chapter 11 - motivation and emotion

Motivation

An internal state or condition that energizes and directs behavior toward a desired goal

Instinct theory

All behaviors are driven by instinct, inherited behavioral blueprints. Presumes instincts are triggered by certain stimuli. Instincts are unlearned.

Drive-reduction theory

If homeostasis is interrupted, a physiological need is created which produces a drive(arousal). The drive motivates behavior until need is satisfied and the arousal is eliminated

Homeostasis > need > drive > goal oriented behavior > need satisfied

(Optimal) arousal theory

Behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal. When under-aroused, we seek stimulation. When performing simple tasks, we seek more arousal (don’t get bored). When performing complex tasks, we seek low arousal (so we can focus)

Yerkes-dodsen law

Performance on a task varies as a function of arousal level. Different tasks require different levels of arousal. Simple tasks - more arousal. Complex tasks - low arousal

Incentive theory

Emphasizes the “pull” of incentives, external factors that are rewarding (enticing) such as money, recognition, praise, chocolate, addictive drugs. Explains liking and wanting behvaior. We may experience something rewarding and like it in the moment (produces pleasure) but we then may come to want to experience it again. Dopamine pathways activated and direct future behavior.

Nucleus accumbens

People will do lots to get this area stimulated. Incentive theory. Pleasure.

Primary incentives

Innate, inherently rewarding. e.g. sweet chocolate

Secondary incentives

E.g. money. Are associated with primary incentives

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

We have many needs that vary in priority. Lower needs must be met before higher needs.

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs

3. Belonging and love needs

4. Esteem needs

5. Self-actualization needs

Physiological needs

Needs relating to physical survival (food, water)

Safety needs

The need to feel safe and secure (shelter)

Love and belonging needs

The need to have close relationships with others

Esteem needs

The need to feel good about oneself

Self-actualization needs

The need to become all that one is capable of becoming

Stomach signals

Contractions of the stomach match feeling of hunger

Ghrelin

Released when stomach empty; travels via blood to brain (stimulates food intake)

Satiety signals

Reduces hunger and food intake. “Stretch” receptors in stomach are activated when food enters and expands stomach. People with stomachs removed still report hunger

Blood glucose levels

Neurons in hypothalamus sense blood sugar changes. If low, triggers hunger. If high, signals satiety.

Lipids

Fats. If high, produce satiety.

Amino acids

If high, produce satiety

Leptin

Released from fat cells. If high, produce satiety

Lateral hypothalamus

Responds to hunger signals (e.g. ghrelin) and promotes eating behavior when stimulated. Lesions (in rats) produces profound anorexia (LH syndome)

Ventromedial hypothalamus

Responds to satiety (e.g. glucose, leptin) and inhibits eating behavior. Lesions produce profound obesity (VMH syndrome). Over-eat and store more fat.

Dual-centre theory of motivation

Activity in one area inhibits the area that serves the opposite function. LH is activated by hunger. Then, as meal progresses, satiety signals activate VMH which inhibits LH.

Nucleus of the solitary tract

Receives signals from facial (taste) and vagus nerve, projects to the hypothalamus.

Insular cortex

Frontal lobe, important for disgust

Body set point

Individuals seem to maintain a fairly stable body weight.

Obesity

BMI over 30. Overweight BMI over 25. Condition of extreme overweight

Genetics and obesity

More fat cells, lower metabolic rate, fewer leptin receptors (more insulin). Doesn’t explain epidemic

Affiliation

Need to form attachments to other people for support, guidance, and protection. Seems innate, from birth we seek connection.

Positive aspects of affiliation

• relationships increase self-esteem

• Live longer

• Experience less depression

Negative consequences of affiliation

People stay in abusive relationships and join gangs in effort to belong due to fear of being excluded.

Excessive comparisons to others can cause depression

Achievement motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills. Often accompanied persistence and self-control (discipline). Predictive of success.

Delaying gratification

Self-control often the key to long term success.

Emotions

Conscious internal states or experiences which occur in response to biologically significant stimuli. Often produce action (away or toward)

3 components of emotion

1. Physiological arousal

2. Cognitive component

3. Behavioral component

Physiological arousal

All emotions involve activation of autonomic nervous system. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for action… fight or flight. Amount of arousal varies according to the emotion.

Sympathetic nervous system

Prepares the body for action

Pupils dilate, salivation increases, goose bumps, increased breathing, heart accelerates, release stress hormones, decreases digestion, blood vessels constrict and blood sugar increases, sweaty.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Returns the body to normal state

Pupils constrict, increased salivation, breathing decreases, heart slows, increases digestion, blood vessels dilate and blood sugar drops.

Cognitive component

Involves awareness of the experienced emotion. Appraisal of events producing emotion (there is a bear in front of me). Important for determining the intensity of emotion

Behavioral component

Emotions are expressed through several types of behaviors. Ex: facial expressions, verbal expression, gestures.

Facial expressions

Changes in facial muscles accompany emotions. Specific expressions for each emotion. Universal.

Verbal expression

People talk about their emotions. The more intense the emotion, the more likely we are to talk about it and orient conversations around.

Secondary social sharing

When emotional experiences are heard from one person, we tend to share those experiences with yet another. More intense, more we share.

Functions of emotion

1. Cognitive functions

2. Behavioral functions

3. Social functions

Cognitive functions

Emotions help store and retrieve memories (emotional memories easy to recall). Guide judgement and help us make decisions.

Behavioral functions

Organize our behaviors. We tend towards behaviors that produce positive emotions and avoid ones that produce negative ones. Procrastination.

Action tendancies

Predictable patterns of behavior associated with emotions which help us to respond appropriately to our environments. E.g. sadness promotes seeking support.

Social functions

Important for interpersonal relationships (emotional intelligence). More married couples talk about their emotions, the better the relationship.

Face electromyography (EMG)

Measured electrical activity in various facial muscles

Skin conductance

Perspiration of the skin

Body maps

Indicate where emotional changes are being experienced in the body

Lie detectors (polygraph)

Measures respiration rate, heart rate, galvanic skin response. Begins with control questions, then critical questions compared to baseline. Assumes arousal is specific to lying when many other emotions produce arousal too. High false positive rates.

James-lange theory

When exposed to emotion provoking stimulus there is a physiological response and specific behavioral response. The cognitive component (awareness of emotion, feeling scared) follows the physiological arousal and behvaioral response.

Danger > physiological arousal > emotion: FEAR!

Cannon-bard theory

Body responses not distinct enough to evoke different emotions. Ex: increased heart rate when angry but also when excited. Argued experienced feeling and physiological response occur simultaneously. Brain simultaneously directs information to cortex (cognitive component) and to SNS (physiological arousal). Brain interprets emotion independent of arousal.

Danger > thalamus relays info > physiological arousal and emotion

Schachter and singer’s two factor theory

Emotion involves arousal (non-specific) and a cognitive label. When aroused, we appraise the situation to determine the appropriate emotion

General arousal > thinking (cognitive appraisal) > particular emotion

Danger > physiological arousal > label “im scared” > emotion: FEAR!

When aroused, the emotional experience we have depends on our interpretation of the arousal. Same arousal can be interpreted differently leading to different emotions

Schachter-singer two factor theory experiement

All told they were receiving a specific drug. Actually given epinephrine or placebo.

Given epinephrine: some told they would experience ANS symptoms (informed), some told they would have no side effects (deceived), others told they would feel bogus side effects (misinformed).

Those in misinformed and deceived groups experienced same emotion of confederate (actor).

Informed group: i feel strange, must be the injection

Misinformed and deceived group: i feel strange, kind of happy like that guy over there (actor)

High-road to conscious cortex

Slow, but explains when cognition precedes feeling, like schachter-signer.

Fear stimulus > thalamus > sensory cortex > prefrontal cortex > amygdala > fear response

Low road to unconscious amygdala

Quicker, by-passes cortex, emotion detector without cortex awareness. Enables feelings prior to cognitive appraisal

Fear stimulus > thalamus > amygdala > fear response

Facial feedback theory

Proposes that subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity. Expressed emotions amplify and regulate your own feelings.

Evolutionary theory

Emotions are innate each serving a particular survival function. All emotions present and expressed from infancy

Ten basic emotions

Joy,