sociology final exam

Claims Making Process-

the process by which individuals or groups assert that a specific issue should be recognized as a social problem that requires attention and action

Coale’s Population Periodization-

outlines how population change over time through different stages of birth and death rates

Primary vs. Secondary Socialization-

___ occurs early in life, primarily through family, teaching fundamental norms and values, ___ happens later, often through institutions like schools or workplace, reinforcing and adapting these norms in new social context

Behaviourism & Conditioning- B.F Skinner, Ivan Pavlov- Behaviourism

focuses on observable behaviours and the environmental stimuli that influence them - classical- associates involuntary responses with stimuli. Operant- modifies voluntary behaviours through reinforcement or punishment

Hybrid Identities-

refer to the integration of multiple cultural, ethnic, or social identities into a unique sense of self, individuals navigate and blend different cultural influences

Role Conflict-

refers to the tension or stress that arises when an individual faces incompatible demands from two or more social roles they occupy

Role Strain-

the stress experienced when an individual struggles to meet the demands of one social role they have.

Work (Ouevre) vs. Product (Produit)-

__ is studied for its social functions and impact on identity, __ are analyzed for their role in social interactions and cultural meanings

Natural Growth Rate

refers to the difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a population, indicating how quickly a population is increasing or decreasing without considering migration

Master Status

the primary social position that significantly shapes an individual's identity and how they are perceived by others. It often overshadows other characteristics such as race, gender or jobs

Gender Performativity

the idea that gender is not an inherent trait but is instead created and reinforced through repeated actions and expressions -Judith Butler

Intersectionality

is analytical framework that examines how various aspects of an individual identity, such as gender, class, and sexuality, interact to create unique experiences of privilege or oppression

Deviantization

the process by which certain behaviours or individuals are labeled as deviant, often leading to social control measures and stigmatization

Undeviantization

the process by which individuals or groups are re-integrated into society and no longer labeled as deviant often through changed in behaviour or societal perceptions.

Horizontal Integration

the process where a company expand its operation by acquiring or merging with other businesses at the same level of the supply chain within the same industry

Vertical Integration

the business strategy company controls its entire supply chain, from production to distribution, to increase efficiency and profitability

Formal vs. Informal Social Control

__ involves law and institutions like police and courts that enforce rules through punishments. __ relies on social norms, custos, and community expectations to guide behaviour without formal enforcement

 

Disciplinary Mechanism

he methods and practices used to regulate behaviour and maintain social order, often through systems of surveillance, punishment, and normalization

Binary Division & Coercive Assignment-

the classification of individuals into two distinct categories, male and female based on norms. Coercive assignment involves the pressure to conform to these binary categories, often leading to social expectations and constraints on behaviour

Methodological Relationism

emphasizes the importance of relationships and interactions in understanding social phenomena, rather than focusing on individual entities in isolation

Fetishism of Space

the idea that social space is produced through social practices and relationships, influenced by economic and cultural factors how society often reduces space to a mere object or commodity, ignoring the social relations and processes that produce it.

Labelling Process

how individuals or groups are defined and categorized by society, often leading to the assignment of labels that influence their identity and behaviour

Social Production of Space

views space as a product of social relations and human interactions, rather than just a physical container

Ebaugh’s Theory of Exes

the process by which an individual disengages from a significant role in their life and re-establishes their new role- doubt, rubicon, imagination, ex

Quality & Quantity in Simmel

___ refers to the nature and meanings of relationships, ___ refers to the number of individual involved in those interactions

 

Turning Point-

a significant event or moment that disrupts an individuals life trajectory, leading to a change in direction or behaviour, these moments can be crucial in shaping future paths and are often recognized only in hindsight as pivotal changes

Deviance

is defined as any behaviour, belief, or characteristic that violates social norms and elicits a negative reaction within a particular group

Positive Deviance

the behaviours or strategies adopted by certain individuals or groups within a community that enables them to find better solutions to problem than their peers, despite facing similar challenges and having access to the same resources

Visibility is a trap

the idea that individuals are subjected to constant scrutiny, leading to a loss of privacy and autonomy

Plague met by order

how societies respond to epidemics by establishing strict rules and systems to manage the chaos, reflecting a shift towards a more controlled social order

Goffman’s Role Performance Theory

how individuals enact the behaviours, duties, and norms associated with their social roles reflecting adherence to societal expectations

Front Stage vs Back Stage

___ refers to the behaviour individuals exhibit when they are aware they are being observed. __is where they can relax and act without the pressure of an audience - Erving Goffman

Impression Management

where people consciously or unconsciously influence how others perceive them by controlling information in social interactions- Erving Goffman

Androcentrism

practice of centering male perspectives and experiences in cultural, social, and institution contexts, often marginalizing or devaluing women and non male identities

Sensory Foundations of Social Life-

how our sense are socially constructed and influence our interactions and experiences within society. How our sensory experiences are not passive receptions but are shaped by cultural and social contexts, affecting how we perceive and engage with the world around us

Subjective vs. Objective Deviance

___ refers to behaviours or characteristics that are inherently deviant due to their qualities, causing harm or violating social norms. __ is how society perceives and reacts to behaviours, meaning what is considered deviant can vary based on cultural context and social reactions

Gender as a Social Construct

is defined as social construct, meaning it is not a natural or biological fact but rather a concept created by cultural and societal norms

Hall’s Reception Theory & Encoding

focused on how audiences interpret and respond to media texts based on their cultural backgrounds and experiences. Encoding is how producers create messages using signs and symbols, while decoding is how audiences interpret those messages, can vary among different viewer- domaints, opposite, negotiable

Digital Divide

refers to the unequal in access to  information and internet, which is influenced by social, economic, cultural, and political factors. Highlights not just unequal access to technology but also skills and opportunities to effectively use it

Bentham’s Prison

a design is a concept that emphasizes constant surveillance to encourage self regulations among inmates. This shows broader themes of authority and discipline in society, suggesting individuals internalize the potential for observation, leading to conformity with social norms

Genie

a American feral child who went through extreme social isolation and abuse, which provides insights into human development and the effects of neglect on social behaviour, their story highlights the critical periods for learning and social relations for psychological growth

Dyad vs. Triad

___ is a group of two or two people, high emotional intimacy, personal, concrete ___ is three or more groups, abstract, impersonal

Resocialization

the process of unlearning old behaviours and norms and adopting new ones, occurring in structured environments like military, prison

Knowledge is power

the idea that knowledge shapes social structures and influences power dynamics within society. Those who control knowledge can also control social realities and maintain power over other

Total Institution

a large group of people, who are cut off from the wider community, live together under strict control and regulation, such as prisons, mental hospital, and nursing home

Bunting/Walker’s Demographic Model

framework in sociology that analyzes population changes and  focusing on factors birth rates, death rates, and migration. This model helps to understand how these demographic factors influence social structures and economic conditions within a society

Social Space

the physical or virtual environments where individuals interact and form social relationships

Blase Attitude

a protective emotional detachment that a person is indifferent and emotionally detached towards things to cope with the sensory overload from the city

Reserve Attitude

a defense mechanism characterized by emotionally detached and indifferent towards people to try and cope with the psychological pressures and sensory overload of the city

 

Anti-Nature

argument that social sciences require different methods than natural sciences, focusing on subjective meanings rather than objective facts. Emphasizes understanding human experiences and social interactions through interpretive approaches

Panopticism

concept that describes a mode of surveillance and power where individuals internalize control due to the constant possibility of being observed

 

Status Degradation Ceremony

the process where an individual identity is publicly transformed into a lower status within a social group, can lead to emotional and psychological consequences for the victim

Digital Society

a society that is shaped by the widespread adoption and integration of digital technologies, impacting social structures, relationships, and institutions

 

Alone Together

the phenomenon where individuals feel isolated despite being in the presence of others, often due to reliance on technology for social connection

Under-representation

the situation where certain groups, marginalized ones, are not equally represented in social, political, or economic contexts compared to their numbers in the overall population

Mis-representation

the act of giving false or misleading account of something, often with the intent to deceive or unfairly influence others.

Automatization of Power

the process where technology and automation system are used to manage and control social relation and structures often leading to increased efficiency but also potential alienation and inequality.

Disindividualization of Power

the process where power becomes less associated with individuals and more with collective structures or systems

Role Taking

the process of understanding and adopting the perspective of others in social interactions

Role Making

involves actively shaping and defining ones own role within a social context

Identity Work

ongoing process of forming, repairing, and maintaining one's sense of self in response to social contexts and experience. Constructing and reconstructing personal and social identities especially during transitions or when facing conflicting expectations

 

Socialization

the lifelong process where individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviours of their society through interactions with others

 

Status

a person's relative rank or position within a social hierarchy, which is associated with specific rights, duties, and lifestyle.

The Stranger/ the outsider- Georg Simmel.

___ is a member of a group who remains distant from other members. ___ has no specific relation to the group

Malthus’ Demographic Catastrophe

a situation where population growth outpaces agricultural production, leading famine, disease, and conflict as natural checks on population. That if unchecked, population growth will result in severe living conditions and a decline in population levels.

Social Role-

a set of behaviours, rights, obligations, and norms expected of individuals in a specific social position, guiding their interactions and behaviours in society.

Primary Deviance

the initial act of rule breaking that does not significantly alter individual's self identity or how society perceives them.

 

Secondary Deviance-

the process where an individual internalizes a deviant label assigned by society, leading to a change in self identity, and behaviour

Amplification Theory

the process where societal reactions to deviant behaviour can actually increase the level of the deviance, when media coverage and public concern create a cycle that marginalizes individuals leading them to engage in more deviant behaviour in response to the labeling and shame they experience

Control theory

deviance & crime occur when individuals feel they can get away with them due to lack of regulation- upbringing, parents letting them get away, or lack of police watching over. People act out in deviant ways because they are allowed to. We need to either have better family units or more policing on the streets

Learning theory-

suggest that criminal behaviour is learned through interactions with others, particularly within intimate personal groups

 Strain theory-

societal pressures to achieve culturally accepted goals, like wealth, can lead individuals to commit deviant acts when they lack legitimate means to achieve those goals

spatial practice, perceived space

the physical organization of space, including daily routines and activities

representation of space, conceived space

type encompasses the space as imagined and planned by urban planners, architects, and other professionals

 

representational space, lived space

this category captures the individuals and subjective experiences of space, shaped by personal emotions and cultural symbols

trichotomy of space- Henri Lefebvre

spatial space, representation of space, representational space