APES Cram

Ecosystem vs habitat vs environment

ecosystem = organisms + abiotic factors; habitat = where one organism lives; environment = all surroundings affecting life

Symbiosis, mutualism, commensalism, competition

symbiosis = close species interaction; mutualism = +/+; commensalism = +/0; competition = -/-

Predation vs parasitism

predation = predator benefits/prey harmed; parasitism = parasite benefits/host harmed

Estuary

freshwater + saltwater mix; high nutrients; high productivity; nursery habitat

Genetic vs species vs ecosystem diversity

genetic = gene variety; species = species variety; ecosystem = ecosystem/habitat variety

Provisioning vs supporting vs regulating vs cultural services

provisioning = goods,

supporting = nutrient cycling/soil formation,

regulating = climate/flood/water control,

cultural = recreation/spiritual/tourism

Island biogeography

larger island = more species; closer island = more species

Primary vs secondary succession

primary = no soil; secondary = soil remains after disturbance

Succession steps

bare area/disturbance → pioneer species → soil/organic matter buildup → grasses/shrubs → trees → climax community

Climax community species

late-stage; stable; mature ecosystem species

r-selected vs K-selected

r = many offspring, little care, short life, boom-bust;

K = few offspring, more care, long life, stable near carrying capacity

Survivorship curves

Type I = die old, humans; Type II = steady death, birds; Type III = many die young, fish

Carrying capacity

max population environment can support

Age structure cohorts

pre-reproductive = 0-14; reproductive = 14-55, post-reproductive = older

TFR

average children per woman

TFR factors

education, contraception, child mortality, culture, economics, government policy

CBR vs CDR

CBR = births/1,000/year; CDR = deaths/1,000/year

% growth rate formula

(CBR - CDR) / 10

Rule of 70

70 / % growth rate = doubling time

DTM phases

1 = high CBR/high CDR/low growth; 2 = high CBR/falling CDR/rapid growth; 3 = falling CBR/low CDR/slowing growth; 4 = low CBR/low CDR/stable growth

NPP vs GPP

GPP – Total carbon fixed via photosynthesis

NPP – What's left after plant respiration: NPP = GPP − Ra

Primary productivity

rate at which producers convert sunlight into substances via photosynthesis

Trophic levels

producer → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary consumer

10% rule

about 10% energy transfer between trophic levels

Food web

connected feeding relationships

Carbon cycle

photosynthesis → consumption → respiration/decomposition → CO₂ release; fossil fuels/combustion; ocean exchange

Nitrogen cycle

fixation → nitrification → assimilation → consumption → ammonification → denitrification

Nitrogen fixation

atmospheric nitrogen gas, N₂, → ammonia, NH₃, or ammonium, NH₄⁺ by soil microbes

Nitrification

ammonia, NH₄⁺, → nitrite, NO₂⁻, → nitrate, NO₃⁻ by microorganisms to use for plants

Assimilation

plants absorb nitrate, NO₃⁻, or ammonium, NH₄⁺

Consumption (nitrogen)

animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other animals

Ammonification

organic nitrogen from waste/dead matter → ammonium, NH₄⁺ by bacteria and fungi

Denitrification

nitrate, NO₃⁻, → nitrogen gas, N₂, returned to atmosphere by microbes

Phosphorus cycle

rock weathering → phosphate in soil/water → plant uptake → consumption → decomposition/waste → sediment/rock

Hydrologic cycle

evaporation → condensation → precipitation → runoff/infiltration → groundwater/transpiration

Biome overview

rainforest = hot/wet; savanna = grass + scattered trees; desert = dry; grassland = fertile soil; temperate forest = seasonal trees; taiga = cold conifers; tundra = permafrost

Photic vs aphotic

photic = sunlight/photosynthesis; aphotic = no sunlight/no photosynthesis

Soil horizons

O = organic litter; A = topsoil; E = leaching; B = subsoil; C = parent material; R = bedrock

Porosity vs permeability

porosity = space for water to be stored; permeability = water movement ability through pores. INVERSE

Soil salinization

irrigation → evaporation → salt buildup → reduced plant growth

Preservation vs conservation

preservation = protect from use; conservation = sustainable use

Shelterwood vs selective vs seed tree cutting

shelterwood = staged removal of mature trees; selective = only some old trees to have unneveness in age; seed tree = few seed trees left

Forest reclamation factor

soil/topsoil quality most important

Atmosphere gases

N₂, O₂, Ar, CO₂

Atmosphere layers

exosphere = outer edge

thermosphere = high temp from absorbing radiation;

mesosphere = meteors;

stratosphere = ozone;

troposphere = weather

Good vs bad ozone

stratospheric = good UV protection; tropospheric = bad pollutant

Stratosphere importance

ozone layer; UV-B/UV-C protection

Insolation

incoming solar radiation

Seasons

Earth’s 23.5° tilt → different sunlight angles/intensity

El Niño vs La Niña

El Niño = warmer eastern Pacific/weaker upwelling; La Niña = cooler eastern Pacific/stronger upwelling

Temperature-altitude relationship

troposphere down; stratosphere up; mesosphere down; thermosphere up

Thermal inversion

cool polluted air trapped under warm air

Polar jet stream

fast upper-air winds; storm track/cold air influence

Atmospheric temp and sea level

warming → thermal expansion + land ice melt → sea level rise

Greenhouse effect

sunlight in → infrared out → greenhouse gases trap/re-emit heat

Water vapor as greenhouse gas

strong GHG; feedback more than main human driver

Natural CO₂ sources

respiration, decomposition, volcanoes, ocean release, wildfires

Criteria air pollutants

CO, Pb, NO₂, O₃, PM, SO₂

Carbon Monoxide, Lead, Nitrogen Dioxide, Ground-level Ozone, Particulate Matter, Sulfur Dioxide

CO source/effect

incomplete combustion/vehicles; reduces blood oxygen

Pb source/effect

old paint/pipes/industry; nervous system damage

NO₂ source/effect

combustion/vehicles; lungs, smog, acid deposition

SO₂ source/effect

coal/smelting; lungs, acid deposition

PM source/effect

dust/combustion/fires; lung and heart damage

O₃ source/effect

NOx + VOCs + sunlight; lung/plant damage

Photochemical smog reactants

NOx + VOCs + sunlight + O₂

Tropospheric ozone formation

NO₂ + sunlight → O + O₂ → O₃

VOCs and ozone overnight

reduce ozone breakdown; keep ozone higher

Electrostatic precipitator

charged plates remove PM

Vapor-recovery nozzle

captures gasoline vapors/VOCs

Acid deposition pollutants

SO₂ and NOx

Acid deposition process

SO₂/NOx → sulfuric/nitric acid → wet or dry deposition

Endocrine disruptor

chemical interfering with hormones

Eutrophication

nutrient runoff → algal bloom → decomposition → low DO → fish kills

Oligotrophic vs eutrophic

oligotrophic = low nutrients/high oxygen/clear; eutrophic = high nutrients/low oxygen/murky

POPs

persistent, toxic, fat-soluble, bioaccumulate, biomagnify

POP release

pesticide runoff, industrial discharge, waste leaks, atmospheric deposition

Bioaccumulation vs biomagnification

bioaccumulation = buildup in one organism; biomagnification = increase up food chain

Sewage treatment

primary = solids removed; secondary = bacteria break down organics; tertiary = nutrients/chemicals/pathogens removed

Wastewater disinfection

UV, chlorination, ozone

Route of exposure

inhalation, ingestion, dermal, injection

UV-B vs UV-C

UV-B = sunburn/DNA damage; UV-C = most dangerous but mostly blocked

BOD vs DO

BOD = oxygen demand by decomposers; DO = oxygen available to aquatic life

LD50

dose killing 50%; lower LD50 = more toxic

Dose-response curve

dose increase vs effect increase

Acute vs chronic exposure

acute = high dose/short time; chronic = low dose/long time

Carcinogen/mutagen/teratogen/neurotoxin/pathogen

cancer-causing, mutation-causing, birth-defect-causing, nervous-system-damaging, disease-causing

Earth layers

crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

Most common crust element

oxygen

Mantle convection

hot rises; cool sinks; plates move

Gangue

waste rock from mining

Plate boundaries

divergent = ridges/rifts; convergent = mountains/volcanoes/trenches; transform = earthquakes; hotspot = volcano chains

Magmatic hotspots

mantle plume; volcanoes away from boundaries; island chains

Peat to anthracite

peat → lignite → bituminous → anthracite; carbon and heat increase

Fractional distillation

crude oil heated; hydrocarbons separate by boiling point

Tar sands vs traditional oil

tar sands = mined/steam-extracted bitumen; traditional = pumped liquid oil

Methane combustion

CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + energy

Fracking

high-pressure water/sand/chemicals crack rock; oil/gas released

Largest nuclear meltdowns

Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, Fukushima

Active vs passive solar

active = panels/pumps; passive = building design/window/thermal mass