SCI 140 - Final Exam (Unit 9-11)

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What is a GMO?

An organism whose DNA has been altered using biotechnology (e.g., CRISPR, gene insertion) to add, remove, or modify traits.

What are common goals of GMOs?

Pest resistance, improved nutrition, longer shelf life, reduced waste.

What % of processed foods contain GMO ingredients?

~70–90%.

What is traditional breeding?

Selecting organisms with desired traits over many generations (slow, less precise).

What is genetic engineering?

Directly editing specific genes (fast, precise).

Key difference?

Traditional = indirect + slow
Modern = direct + fast

What is Bt corn?

Corn with a bacterial gene that produces insect-killing protein → reduces pesticides.

What is Golden Rice?

Rice engineered to produce vitamin A → prevents blindness.

What are Arctic Apples?

Apples modified to not brown → reduces food waste.

What are CRISPR tomatoes?

Tomatoes edited to increase GABA → helps lower blood pressure.

Do GMOs change your DNA when eaten?

No — DNA is broken down during digestion.

Why are people concerned about GMOs?

Long-term safety, environmental impact, corporate control.

Scientific consensus on GMO safety?

Generally considered safe.

What is nutrigenomics?

Study of how nutrients affect gene expression.

What is DNA-based diet testing?

Using genetics to predict diet needs (e.g., caffeine sensitivity, vitamin absorption).

Example of genetic trait affecting diet?

A: Lactose intolerance (lactase enzyme production).

What is personalized nutrition?

Diets tailored to your DNA.

What is lab-grown meat?

Meat grown from animal cells without slaughter.

How can GMOs help climate issues?

Create drought-, heat-, and disease-resistant crops.

What are biological weapons?

Bacteria, viruses, or toxins used to cause harm.

Examples?

A: Anthrax, smallpox, plague.

Term: Transmissibility?

How easily a disease spreads

Term: Virulence?

How severe/infectious a disease is

Term: Mortality?

How likely it is to cause death

What is dual-use science?

Technology that can be used for both good (medicine) and harm (bioweapons).

What can scientists do with DNA?

Sequence, copy (PCR), and edit (CRISPR).

Why is this powerful?

Enables disease research, vaccines, but also potential misuse.

Why are modified pathogens dangerous?

Can change transmission, immune evasion, and treatment response.

Why are outcomes unpredictable?

Genes interact in complex systems.

What happened in the 2001 anthrax attacks?

Spores were intentionally mailed to cause harm.

What is gain-of-function research?

Modifying organisms to study how they might become more transmissible.

Why is smallpox significant?

~30% mortality, highly contagious, eradicated in 1980.

Why is it still a concern?

Virus DNA is stored and fully sequenced.

How does sequencing help in pandemics?

Identifies pathogen (disease causing) and tracks spread.

What are mutations used for?

Act as a “molecular clock.”

What are phylogenetic trees?

Diagrams showing how a disease spreads.

What is the central dogma?

DNA → RNA → Protein

What major shift is happening in biology?

From reading DNA → writing/editing DNA.

Role of AI in biology?

Predict structures, analyze genomes, enable precision medicine.

What is precision medicine?

Tailoring treatment to an individual’s genetics.

What is happening in genetic technology overall?

• Predicting disease

• Editing genes

• Designing organisms

Major ethical question about DNA tech?

Who controls and decides how DNA is used?

Risk of editing humans?

Inequality

Is it for enhancement or therapy?

What is de-extinction?

Recreating extinct species (or approximations).

What is genetic surveillance?

Using DNA databases to identify/track people.

How will DNA tech affect food systems?

Designing crops and optimizing agriculture.

What is Agrobacterium used for?

A bacterium that naturally transfers DNA into plant cells → used to insert new genes (like Bt or vitamin A genes).

What is biolistics (gene gun)?

A method that shoots microscopic particles coated with DNA into plant cells.

What does “proof of principle” mean (CRISPR tomatoes)?

Demonstrates that a new technology works, even if the application is low-risk.

What is teosinte?

The wild ancestor of modern corn (small, hard, not easily edible).

Why are bananas at risk?

They are genetically identical clones → low genetic diversity → vulnerable to diseases like Panama disease.

What enzyme is involved in apple browning?

PPO (polyphenol oxidase).

Are viruses alive?

No — they cannot reproduce without a host.

What is a virus made of?

DNA or RNA + protein coat + sometimes an envelope.

Example bacteria causing disease?

Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Yersinia pestis (plague).

Why are small DNA changes important?

They can cause large, unpredictable biological effects.

Why is DNA technology accessibility a concern?

It’s becoming cheaper and more widespread → increases misuse risk.

What safeguards exist?

Regulations and oversight (e.g., global health organizations).

What did the Human Genome Project (2003) do?

Made the full human DNA sequence searchable.

What is AlphaFold?

AI that predicts protein structures → helps drug discovery.

What are SNPs?

Small genetic variations used in ancestry and disease analysis.

What is genetic genealogy?

Using DNA to find relatives and identify individuals.

What is the difference between therapy and enhancement?

• Therapy = fixing disease

• Enhancement = improving beyond normal

What is de-extinction really doing?

Creating approximations (not exact copies) of extinct species.