Foundational Documents & Cases

The Declaration of Independence

Jefferson’s statement that people have natural rights and may overthrow a government that violates them, formally breaking from Britain.

The Articles of Confederation

America’s first government, a weak national system with no power to tax or enforce laws, ultimately replaced due to its inability to govern effectively.

The Constitution

The foundational framework of the U.S. government establishing three branches, federalism, and a system designed to limit and divide power.

Brutus 1

Warns that a large centralized republic will become tyrannical, arguing the Constitution gives the national government too much power and threatens individual liberty.

Federalist 10

Madison’s argument that a large republic is the best way to control factions because it dilutes their power and prevents any one group from dominating.

Federalist 51

Explains how checks and balances and separation of powers prevent tyranny by forcing each branch to control itself and the others.

Federalist 70

Argues for a single, energetic executive to ensure accountability, quick decision‑making, and effective leadership.

Federalist 78

The essay arguing that the judiciary should be independent, with life tenure to protect judges from political pressure, and that courts have the power of judicial review to check unconstitutional laws.

Letter From Birmingham Jail

King’s defense of nonviolent civil disobedience, arguing that people have a moral duty to break unjust laws, exposing the failures of gradualism and urging immediate action against segregation.

Marbury v. Madison

Established judicial review, giving the Court power to strike down unconstitutional laws.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Confirmed implied powers under the Necessary & Proper Clause and federal supremacy over states.

U.S. v. Lopez

Limited Congress’s commerce power, ruling that gun possession in a school zone is not interstate commerce.

Engel v. Vitale

State‑sponsored school prayer violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

Wisconsin v. Yoder

Compulsory schooling laws violated Free Exercise when applied to Amish families.

Tinker v. Des Moines

Students have free speech rights in school; symbolic speech (armbands) is protected unless it disrupts learning.

New York Times v. U.S.

Government cannot impose prior restraint on the press without proof of direct national security harm.

Schenck v. U.S.

Speech can be limited if it creates a “clear and present danger” (e.g., anti‑draft leaflets during wartime).

Gideon v. Wainwright

States must provide attorneys to defendants who cannot afford one (6th Amendment).

McDonald v. Chicago

Incorporated the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms to the states through the 14th Amendment.

Brown v. Board of Education

Struck down school segregation; “separate is inherently unequal.”

Citizens United v. FEC

Corporate and union spending on independent political ads is protected free speech.

Baker v. Carr

Allowed federal courts to hear redistricting cases; established “one person, one vote.”

Shaw v. Reno

Race‑based gerrymandering is unconstitutional unless it meets strict scrutiny. Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment