PYC 2010 FINAL CARTHAGE COLLEGE

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Scientific Method

Systematic process: question, hypothesis, study, analyze, conclude, replicate

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about a relationship between variables

Null Hypothesis

Prediction that there is no relationship or effect

Theory

Set of principles that explain relationships between variables

Falsifiability

Theory must be able to be proven wrong

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results and ensure reliability

Empirical Evidence

Data based on observation, measurement, or experiment

Observational Method

Recording behavior without manipulation

Correlational Method

Examines relationship between two variables

Experimental Method

Manipulates IV to measure effect on DV

Quasi-Experimental

Uses pre-existing groups, no random assignment

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Strength/direction of relationship (-1 to +1)

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase together

Negative Correlation

One increases, one decreases

Correlation ≠ Causation

Relationship does NOT mean one causes the other

Independent Variable (IV)

Variable manipulated by researcher

Dependent Variable (DV)

Variable measured (outcome)

Confounding Variable

Third variable affecting both IV and DV

Random Assignment

Randomly placing participants into groups

Random Sampling

Randomly selecting participants from population

Experimental Group

Receives treatment (IV)

Control Group

Does not receive treatment

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to expectation, not treatment

Demand Characteristics

Participants act how they think they should

Experimenter Bias

Researcher unintentionally influences results

Operational Definition

Exact way a variable is measured

Quantitative Variable

Numerical data

Qualitative Variable

Categorical data

Continuous Variable

Can take any value (decimals)

Discrete Variable

Whole numbers only

Nominal Scale

Categories with no order

Ordinal Scale

Ranked order

Interval Scale

Equal intervals, no true zero

Ratio Scale

Equal intervals with true zero

Reliability

Consistency of results

Validity

Accuracy of measurement

Descriptive Statistics

Summarize data (mean, median, mode)

Inferential Statistics

Make predictions about population from sample

Mean

Average (sensitive to outliers)

Median

Middle value

Mode

Most frequent value

Range

Difference between highest and lowest values

Variance

Average squared distance from mean (≥ 0)

Standard Deviation

Average distance from mean

Distribution

Spread of data

Positive Skew

Tail on right

Negative Skew

Tail on left

Population

Entire group of interest

Sample

Subset of population

Probabilistic Results

Findings apply on average, not to everyone

Availability Heuristic

Judging based on what easily comes to mind

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that supports beliefs

Bias Blind Spot

Not recognizing your own biases

Authority Bias

Trusting authority regardless of accuracy

Merton's Norms

Principles guiding science

Universalism

Evaluate ideas based on merit

Communality

Share scientific knowledge

Disinterestedness

Remain objective

Organized Skepticism

Question all claims

Belmont Principle: Respect for Persons

Informed consent and autonomy

Belmont Principle: Beneficence

Maximize benefits, minimize harm

Belmont Principle: Nonmaleficence

Do no harm

Belmont Principle: Justice

Fair treatment and selection

Twenty Statements Test (TST)

"I am…" responses measuring self-concept

Manford Kuhn

Co-creator of TST

Thomas McPartland

Co-creator of TST

Richard Cousins (1989)

Compared U.S. vs Japanese self-concept

Independent Self

Traits, abilities (common in U.S.)

Interdependent Self

Roles, relationships (common in Japan)

Culture (IV in your study)

Group being compared (U.S. vs Japan)

Self-Descriptions (DV)

Type of "I am" statements

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new info to existing knowledge (better memory)

Levels of Processing

Deeper processing leads to better memory

Intuition

Personal beliefs or gut feelings (not scientific)

Scientific Knowledge

Evidence-based, testable, systematic