psychology unit 1

What are the three ways schemas reconstruct memory?

Shortening: We leave out the parts that do not align with our schema, so the stored and retrieved memory is shorter.

Rationalisation: We recall events in a distorted way so they fit our existing schema.

Confabulation: We invent parts of an event to fill any gaps to match our schema and make retrieval more meaningful.

What is the cognitive approach to aggression?

1. Cognitive Priming 2. Schemas/Cognitive Scripts 3. Hostile Attribution Bias

What are cognitive scripts?

Mental frameworks that tell us what to expect, how to behave and what the consequences might be.

What is cognitive priming?

A psychological phenomenon in which exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences a response to a later stimulus.

What is Hostile Attribution Bias?

Bias towards perceiving aggression. A person with HAB interprets other people’s behaviour as hostile even if it’s neutral.

What is the Behaviourist Approach to aggression?

1. Positive Reinforcement

2. Observational learning and modelling

3. Vicarious reinforcement

What is observational learning and modelling?

Learning by observing the actions of others and the consequences that follow, rather than through direct experience.

What is the process of observational learning and modelling?

1. Attention (Learner must focus on model’s behaviour. Factors that influence attention include the model’s authority, attractiveness and reputation).

2. Retention (Learner must absorb and store the information in memory for later).

3. Reproduction (The learner must have the physical and mental ability to perform the behaviour)

4. Motivation (The learner must have the motivation to imitate the behaviour, which is heavily influenced by vicarious reinforcement/punishment).

What is the social approach to explaining aggression in society?

1. Conformity to social/group norms (Gender norms)

2. Stereotypes and aggression (Gender stereotypes/ethnic)

3. Influence of the media (Role modelling, desensitisation, disinhibition)

4. Institutional aggression (Gang membership, staff behaviour)

What is desensitisation?

the process of reducing emotional, cognitive, or behavioral responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure

What is disinhibition?

Disinhibition is a lack of restraint, where individuals act on urges without considering long-term consequences, social norms, or risks. (Media depicts aggression as normal, creating new social norms).

What is role modelling (aggression)?

The media provides aggressive role models for people to imitate, which is more likely when the model has characteristics the observer admires. E.g. fame, wealth.

What is institutional aggression?

Aggressive behaviour adopted by members of an institution (prisons, the military, etc).

What is the biological approach to explaining aggression in society?

1. Evolution

2. Brain structures

3. Biochemistry: Testosterone

4. Biochemistry: Serotonin

5. Biochemistry: Dopamine

6. Biochemistry: Cortisol

7. Biochemistry: Genetics

How can evolution explain aggression?

Ancestors who survived to adulthood were more likely to reproduce and pass on genes that contributed to their survival behaviours. E.g. aggression

How can testosterone explain aggression?

The male sex hormone is linked to aggression because men have higher levels than women and are generally more aggressive.

How does dopamine explain aggression?

The neurotransmitter influences aggression when people compete for resources, because dopamine is the brains reward chemical

What is the cognitive approach?

The cognitive approach in psychology studies internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention, and thinking. It suggests that human behavior is driven by how we process information, comparing the mind to a computer that inputs, stores, and retrieves data.

What is the behavioural/social learning approach?

The social learning approach suggests that people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others, rather than solely through direct experience.

What is the biological approach?

The biological approach explains human behaviour as the direct result of internal physical processes, including genetics, brain structures, neurochemistry, and evolution.

What is the social approach?

The social approach explains behavior by emphasizing that human actions are heavily influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people and the social context

Operant conditioning (Gender)

Children behave in ways typical to their gender → peers and adults reward them with praise and approval → reinforces the behaviour

What is gender schema theory in adolescence?

Children learn gender roles and expectations by actively organising information into schemas based on cultural norms. They seek out information for what is appropriate for their gender.

Why may children ignore information regarding the opposite gender?

In-Group: Children tend to show higher interest in and better memorise information regarding their own gender, and may ignore or distort information that contradicts their existing schema.

What is normative social influence?

Normative social influence is the pressure to conform to a group's standards, behaviors, or beliefs to be liked, accepted, or avoid social rejection

What is informational social influence?

The pressure to conform to a group’s standards, behaviours or beliefs because they believe the group possesses more knowledge than them, especially in ambiguous situations.

What is direct attribution priming?

A psychological concept where exposure to a specific stimulus (word, image, feature) directly activates a related thought in memory, influencing decisions without conscious awareness.

How does the use of psychology in business help to explain and influence consumer behaviour? (Biological)

1. FMRI (brain scan that maps activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Marketers use these to indicate what part of an advert persuades a consumer to buy).

2. Eye-tracking (electrodes attached to the face detect movement while people watch an advert. Shows which part of the advertisement the consumer likes)

Social Learning (Gender)

Parents model gender-typical behaviours for children, encouraging the child to observe and imitate it.

What is Authority bias?

Authority bias is the tendency to overvalue the opinions, instructions, or decisions of perceived authority figures, often accepting them without critical evaluation

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Vicarious reinforcement is a learning profess where an individual observes someone else (a models receiving rewards for a behaviour, and becomes more likely to imitate that behaviour as a result.

Define extroversion

In psychology, extraversion is a core personality trait characterized by a tendency to be outgoing, talkative, and high-energy, with a primary focus on the external world of people and activity. Extraverts gain energy from social interaction, whereas introverts recharge in solitude

Social Learning Theory: Identification

Identification happens because of Similarity (observer perceives model as similar to themselves. Same age, gender, etc.)

Value (observers values or admires the model)