A-Level Russian History - Alexander II

Alexander II notes

What was the issue with the mir?

Too traditional, peasants were tied to commune land, land was passed to each male child - this restricted growth

Why was travel also difficult with the mir?

Issued passports and this restricted movement (damaging the need for a mobile Labour force needed for industry)

Why were nobles fearful?

As some riots occurred over redemption payments

How was Russia involved in the Crimean War?

Russia had attempted to increase its interest in the Balkan area, they had sent troops into an area by the Black Sea, controlled by Turkey

Who came into defence to stop Russian expansion?

Britain and France came into Turkey’s defence

What did Russia suffer?

Humiliating defeats at Balaclava, Inkerman and Sebastopol

What problems had been created by the Crimean War?

Trade had been disrupted through the Black Sea causing food shortages, peasant uprisings and had shown the weakness of the regime and economy

What did the Treaty of Paris 1856 do?

Reduced Russian influence in the Black Sea and prevented Russian warships from being there

What problems did the Crimean War highlight?

*military inadequacies - lack of weapons (1 musket for every 2 soldiers), outdated weapons, serf conscripts weren’t well trained and illiterate, brutal punishments and low morale

*transport inadequacies - no railway system to transport weapons and men to the frontline (some men died from starvation/sickness on the long journey

*slow transport (coach and horses) and poor roads - also made communication difficult with the frontline

What political ideas was introduced post-war?

Growth of reforming and more liberal ideas now seemed more justified - General Milyutin wanted to modernise the army and considered serfs were inadequate

Why had nobility felt threatened and unhappy with the Tsar?

Due to an increase in peasant uprisings

Why had their incomes fallen?

Due to a reliance on serfs and lack of incentive to produce more

What was Alexander’s own views?

Believed in autocracy and strength of Tsardom - however, he was also pragmatic and realised if Russia was going to compete with the west - it needed to modernise

What did his travels abroad highlight?

That serfdom was out of date and Russia needed to industrialise

What problems were created by serfdom/how did this limit industrialisation?

Serfs weren’t free to move to towns to work in factories, capital (money) increase didn’t happen - serfs only produced what was needed, no reason to produce any surplus

Why was agriculture only primitive?

As aby surplus/profit would go to the land owner, therefore the serfs had no reason to modernise

Why was the population increase/doubled in the 1st half of 19th century a problem?

*serfs couldn’t produce enough food and any surplus

*frequent famine - in poor weather and demands on peasants to hand over grain to the nobles

Why was there greater competition with Western Europe?

Countries such as Britain and France had modern methods and machinery for agriculture, this brought prices down and made it harder for Russian nobles to sell abroad

What did this therefore do?

Reduced profits and many had to take out mortgages on their land to maintain living standards

What were their moral ideas?

Intelligentsia (reformers and westerners)

What did they do?

Wrote and campaigned for reform during Western Lines (representative assemblies, economic reform), arguing that serfdom was backward and immoral

However, what did Slavophiles believe in?

That Russia needed to be modernised, but keep its culture and heritage based around the Orthodox Church

When was the Emancipation of the Serfs?

1861

Why was the early stages slow?

1856, group of nobles had been asked to make suggestions, this failed and was replaced by Secret Committee of leading officials in 1857, these too were slow and Alexander decided to be more involved in the protests and toured the country from 1858

What did Alexander’s tours do?

Make people loyal to him - he spoke of ‘personal bound’

Who did Alexander II face concerns from?

Nobles who wanted to keep economic control over the peasants and didn’t want to lose financially

Why was an edict finally made in law in 1861?

Partly due to peasant uprisings

Whats the difference between the terms from 1861 to 1866?

1861 - applied to privately owned serfs

1866 - state owned serfs

What were the terms free from?

Ties to landowners, free to many, own property and business, travel, legal rights

What could serfs keep?

Their cottage and land

What did landlords receive?

Compensation from government bonds

What did serfs have to pay?

The government ‘redemption payments’ for 49 years

However, what were the limitations?

Serfs had to stay within the commune until redemption payments had been paid

What did the mir do?

Organised allotments, farming patterns, collected and paid the taxes of the peasants

What did the peasants have to do for 2 years?

Peasants still had to do labour services for the landlord, landowners kept woodlands, meadows and pasture

Why were ‘Volosts’ established to supervise the Mirs?

Providing communal government and some self government

How long did this process take?

Over 20 years

What were some peasants from the Emancipation?

*some ambitious peasants prospered and bought more land - made money from surplus produce (Kulaks)

*some landowners - used compensation money to invest in industry

*extra money from Kulaks and Landowners - aided growth of railways, banking, industry

What problems still existed?

*many peasants resented having to pay any redemptions - believing it was their land anyway

*some felt there was not enough to live on, especially as pasture and woodland had been kept as private property by the landowner

*some peasants fell into debt and relied on loans from Kulaks - causing resentment

Why was it an issue that redemption payments were high?

Less consumer demand and this held back the economy

What did small plots mean?

Peasants couldn’t adopt new farming methods, also restricting production

Why were nobles fearful?

As some riots occurred over redemption payments, many became financially worse off - redemption payments were only enough to pay off debts

What were many forced to do?

Sell their land and others had high mortgage payments

Who did they resent?

Government and Tsars for their losses

What did further reforms by Alexander II show?

Some attempts to appease the resentment from peasants over redemption payments/allocation of land

Who was Dmitiri Milyutin?

Minister of War 1861-81

What did he do?

Made reforms to remove abuses and create a more professional army

What did the military reforms of 1874/5 include?

*improvement in medicine, equipment and food

*length of service - reduced from 25 - 15 years

*conscription for all classes - from age of 20

*corporal punishment and flogging were abolished

*military colleges - better training for officers

*new code of conduct - soldiers and sailors

What modern weaponry was made?

Iron steamships, strategic railways to improve transport

What was the outcome of the military reforms 1874/5?

*a smaller but better trained army - reduced government expenditure

*success against war with Turkey in 1878, defeat to Japan, losses in WW1

However?

Some peasant soldier remained illiterate and therefore officer ranks were mainly filled by the nobility

When was the Local Government Reforms?

1864-70

Why were they put into place?

New roles needed due to the gap left when landowners no longer had control over the local population and upkeep of the area

Who led the Commission 1860?

Nicholas Milyutin and then Valuev

What did it create?

The Zemstva

What were they?

Local elected councils, voting through an electoral college system

What was the role of the Zemstva?

Manage and organise public services - roads, schools, public health, poor relief

Therefore, what happened?

Effective local government and improvements made in the above areas

What happened in 1870?

Zemstva was brought into towns, called Dumas

Who was the Zemstva and Duma dominated by?

Liberal professionals (lawyers, doctors and teachers)

What did this make them?

Well-organised and professional - however, they became a focal point for criticism and debate of the central government and the Tsar

However, what was the limits to their power?

No control over local/state taxes, law and order was the responsibility of the Provincial Governors - could overturn Zemstva decisions

When were Judicial Reforms introduced?

1864

Why were new laws needed?

Due to the new freedom of the serfs (and their new rights/demands for justice - previously had few rights)

What was the new system?

Local courts (minor offences), district courts, chambers and senate (serious crimes)

What did Judicial Reforms consist of?

Cased heard by a jury, open proceedings, better training for judges, senate used for serious crimes, local courts for minor offences

However?

Judges were still appointed by the Tsar

Why was there improvements from the reforms?

Less corrupt, many intelligentsia became lawyers, lawyers could criticise the regime (eg. Vera Zasulen Case)

Why wasn’t there improvements?

Problems still existed - revolutionaries dealt with by the Third Section and arbitary arrest still existed for them. Juries weren’t extended to all parts of the Empire - e. Poland

When were the Educational Reforms?

1863-4

Why were they needed?

Due to the need to catch up with the west, peasants running their own small - holdings now needed basic literacy and numeracy

What were the Educational Reforms operated by?

Zemstva

Who ran them?

Minister for Education - Golovin

What happened under Educational Reforms?

*universities could govern themselves

*primary and secondary education was extended

*modern schools

*all students could progress to university

*women could attend secondary school from 1870

However, what did the increase in education and greater freedoms at universities do?

Increase more militant and radical thinkers

When were the censorship reforms?

1858-70

What happened under censorship reforms?

Relaxation of press censorship, foreign publications allowed, publications that commented on government policies

What did it create?

Great income in books published, allowed books by theorists such as Marx

What were some restrictions?

Ministry of Internal Affairs could stop publications

What were economic reforms?

1860-78

Who was it led by?

Reutern (Minister of Finance)

What happened under economic reforms?

*treasury reformed; new tax collecting system, budgets, auditing, government subsidies for entrepeneur’s, foreign investment was encouraged, encouragement and support for cotton industry and mining

What bank facilities extended?

State Bank created 1860

What were some success in economic reforms?

Encouraged investors and made it easier to set up businesses and expand

When was the Church Reform?

1867-69

When was the 1862 Ecclesiastical Commission?

Looked into Church organisation and practice

However?

Alexander II didn’t want too much criticism of the Church, through fear this would weaken his authority

What happened in 1868?

New reforms allowed talented and educated priests to gain promotions in the Church

Where was there reforms in Poland?

Relaxed restrictions on Catholicism and Polish language

Where was there some reforms in Finland?

Semi-independent government allowed and Finnish language accepted

Where was there reforms with Jews?

Greater freedom over religion and customs

However?

Some were short lived - tighter restrictions brought in again on Poland and Jews after 1863

When was Alexander II’s assassination attempt?

1866

Who attempted to shoot Alexander II near his home?

Karakosov - student with noble background

What had recently happened to him in his personal life?

Recently had his eldest son and his wife died. He had remarried his mistress, Catherine Dolgorulki

Who persuaded him that his reforms had gone too far and allowed revolutionary activities?

Conservatives in the government and Churchmen

What did they say?

Western ideas need removing, universities and the press had become too liberal and were weakening the authority of the Church, nobility and the Tsar

What were religions and ethnic groups also doing?

Weakening Russian strength, this led to new appointments in government

What did Dmitri Tolstoy become?

Minister for Public Instruction and Education

What did Shuvalov become?

Head of the Third Section