Comprehensive Human Anatomy & Physiology: Blood, Hormones, and Cell Structures

What is the path of blood flow through the heart?

Superior Vena Cava / Inferior Vena Cava → Right Atrium → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Left Ventricle → Aorta

What do the right and left sides of the heart carry?

Right side = deoxygenated; Left side = oxygenated

What do arteries and veins do?

Arteries = away from heart; Veins = toward heart

What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

Maintains cell shape, anchors organelles, helps with movement and transport inside the cell

What are the three parts of the cytoskeleton?

Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, Microtubules

What is the function of microfilaments?

Help movement and support

What is the function of intermediate filaments?

Provide strength/stability

What is the function of microtubules?

Transport materials

What is Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) also known as?

Vasopressin

Where is ADH produced and released?

Produced in the hypothalamus; released by the posterior pituitary gland

What is the main function of ADH?

Helps kidneys conserve water, decreases urine output, produces concentrated urine

What does the hypothalamus control?

Pituitary gland

What is the function of Growth Hormone (GH)?

Growth and cell reproduction

What does Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) do?

Stimulates thyroid gland

What is the function of Prolactin (PRL)?

Milk production

What is the main function of oxytocin?

Stimulates uterine contractions and milk release

What does cortisol regulate?

Stress response and metabolism

What is the function of insulin?

Lowers blood glucose

What is the function of glucagon?

Raises blood glucose

What does calcitonin do?

Lowers blood calcium levels

What does Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) do?

Raises blood calcium levels

What is the definition of blood pressure?

The force of blood pushing against artery walls as the heart pumps

What is the normal blood pressure reading?

Around 120/80 mmHg

What is acidosis?

Condition with too much acid; pH below 7.35

What is alkalosis?

Condition with too much base; pH above 7.45

What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

Active immunity: body makes its own antibodies; Passive immunity: receive antibodies from another source

What do eccrine glands produce?

Watery sweat for cooling

What carries oxygenated blood to the heart?

Pulmonary vein

What do sebaceous glands produce?

Oil (sebum)

What are long bones?

Bones that are longer than wide, e.g., femur

What are short bones?

Bones with equal dimensions, e.g., carpals

What is osteoporosis?

Bone disease where too much bone is lost or not enough is made

What is the main functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron

What is the blood flow pathway in the kidney?

Renal artery → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Bowman's capsule → Proximal convoluted tubule → Loop of Henle → Distal convoluted tubule

What divides the body into left and right?

Sagittal plane

What divides the body into front and back?

Coronal (Frontal) plane

What divides the body into top and bottom?

Transverse plane

What is the normal blood pH range?

7.35-7.45

What is testosterone?

An androgen and male sex hormone that develops male reproductive tissues and secondary sex characteristics.

What is active immunity?

Immunity where the body makes its own antibodies, such as from infection or vaccines.

What is passive immunity?

Immunity where antibodies are received from another source, such as breastfeeding or antibody infusion.

What do apocrine glands secrete?

Thicker sweat into hair follicles, associated with body odor.

What are flat bones?

Thin and often curved bones, e.g., sternum and ribs.

What are irregular bones?

Bones with complex shapes, e.g., vertebrae.

What are sesamoid bones?

Bones embedded in tendons, e.g., patella (kneecap).

What does the suffix '-clast' mean?

It refers to cells that break down bone.

What does the suffix '-blast' mean?

It refers to cells that build or form bone.

What are common fractures associated with osteoporosis?

Hip, spine, and wrist fractures.

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron.

What is the path of urine flow?

Collecting duct → Renal pelvis → Ureters → Bladder.

What does the glomerulus do?

Filters blood.

What does the sagittal plane divide?

The body into left and right.

What does the coronal plane divide?

The body into front and back.

What does the transverse plane divide?

The body into top and bottom.

What is the normal blood pressure?

Approximately 120/80 mmHg.

Where is ADH produced?

In the hypothalamus.

What is the function of T3 and T4?

Regulate metabolism.

What does melatonin regulate?

Sleep cycles.

What is the purpose of a Punnett square?

To predict offspring genotypes/phenotypes.

What is stem cell differentiation?

The process of becoming specialized.

What does potency mean in stem cells?

The ability of a stem cell to differentiate into different cell types.

Which cells can form many but not all body cells?

Multipotent cells

What is differentiation?

Becoming specialized

What does totipotent mean?

Can form an entire organism

What does pluripotent mean?

Can form most body cells

What is electrophoresis used for?

Separates DNA, RNA, proteins

What determines how far molecules move in gel during electrophoresis?

Size and electrical charge

What is resting membrane potential?

Approximately -70 mV

What happens during depolarization?

Na+ enters the cell

What ions leave during repolarization?

K+ ions

What causes hyperpolarization?

Slow closing potassium channels

What is the function of the respiratory system?

Gas exchange

What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

Transport

What is the function of the muscular system?

Movement

What is the function of the skeletal system?

Support/protection

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Hormones

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

Immunity

What is the function of the integumentary system?

Protection

What is the function of the nervous system?

Communication/control

What is the function of the gastrointestinal system?

Digestion

What is the function of the urinary system?

Waste removal

What is the main function of lysosomes?

Digest waste, old cell parts, and foreign substances

What do peroxisomes do?

Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances

What do centrioles do?

Organize microtubules during cell division

What is the function of vacuoles?

Storage of nutrients/waste; maintain plant cell pressure

What is the function of chloroplasts?

Photosynthesis in plant cells

What is the function of the cell wall?

Support and protection in plant cells

What does the nucleolus do?

Makes ribosomes (rRNA synthesis)

What do microfilaments (actin) do?

Cell movement and shape

What do microtubules do?

Transport and cell division

What does the endoderm form?

Digestive organs and internal linings

What does the mesoderm form?

Muscles, bones, circulatory system

What does the ectoderm form?

Skin and nervous system

What is the law of segregation?

Each person has 2 alleles for each trait; alleles separate during gamete formation

What is the law of independent assortment?

Traits are inherited independently

What is the law of dominance?

Dominant allele masks recessive allele

What are amino acids?

Building blocks of proteins containing amine and carboxyl groups

What is a prokaryotic cell?

A simple cell without a nucleus

What is a eukaryotic cell?

A complex cell with a nucleus

What is the main function of bile?

Breaks down/emulsifies fats (lipids)