AP Psych Unit 2 Cognitive Psychology

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Encoding

the processing of information so that it can be stored

explicit memory

the conscious, intentional recall of past experiences, facts, and events; memory that one can consciously know and "declare"

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

implicit memory

a type of long-term memory that functions unconsciously and automatically; retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recall

The cognitive process of retrieving information or events of the past from long-term memory without the help of explicit external cues, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

recognition

A measure of memory in which a person must identify previously learned information or targets when presented with them, with the target acting as a strong retrieval cue, as on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that stores general world knowledge, facts, names, concepts, and rules

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

memory consolidation

the biological and cognitive process of stabilizing a newly formed, fragile memory trace into a permanent, long-term memory; acts as a bridge between encoding and retrieval

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age; usually age 4

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

LTP

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory; strengthening of neural networks

Priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new long-term memories after the onset of a brain injury, trauma, or disease

retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve or recall memories for events and information that occurred before the onset of trauma or a brain injury

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

intuition

the power of knowing things without thinking; sharp insight

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

anchoring bias

a tendency to focus on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

Framing

the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

IQ

measure of intelligence; the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Crystalized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance and capacity to learn

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole

cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

sensory adaptation

tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession