2025-2026 Final Exam Topic Outline

module 6-7

after this card, it's module 6-7 stuff

What are isotopes?

Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, giving them different atomic masses.

What does Coulomb's Law describe?

The electrostatic force between charged particles: F = k(q₁q₂)/r². Force increases with charge magnitude and decreases with the square of distance.

What is the difference between fission and fusion?

Fission: a heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing energy (e.g., U-235). Fusion: two light nuclei combine into a heavier nucleus, releasing even more energy (e.g., H + H → He).

Describe alpha, beta, and gamma decay.

Alpha (α): emits a helium-4 nucleus, loses 2 protons & 2 neutrons. Beta (β): a neutron converts to a proton and emits an electron. Gamma (γ): emission of high-energy photons, no change in mass/atomic number.

How do you balance a nuclear decay equation?

Mass numbers (top) and atomic numbers (bottom) must balance on both sides. Example: ²³⁸U → ²³⁴Th + ⁴He

What is half-life?

The time required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. After n half-lives, the remaining amount = initial × (½)ⁿ.

module 8

after this card, it's module 8 stuff

What is the quantum mechanical model of the atom?

A model in which electrons occupy regions of probability (orbitals) described by wave functions. Defined by 4 quantum numbers: n, l, mₗ, mₛ.

What happens during an electron transition?

An electron moves between energy levels. Absorbing energy → jumps to a higher level. Releasing energy → drops to a lower level, emitting a photon whose energy = ΔE = hf.

What is the Aufbau Principle?

Electrons fill orbitals from lowest to highest energy first: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p ...

What is Hund's Rule?

Within a subshell, electrons occupy each orbital singly before any orbital gets a second electron. All single electrons have parallel spins.

What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Each orbital holds at most 2 electrons with opposite spins.

Write the full electron configuration of oxygen (Z=8).

1s² 2s² 2p⁴

Write the abbreviated noble gas configuration of calcium (Z=20).

[Ar] 4s²

module 9

after this card, it's module 9 stuff

How is the modern periodic table organized?

Elements arranged by increasing atomic number. Rows = periods, columns = groups. Blocks: s, p, d, f. Key families: alkali metals (1), alkaline earth (2), halogens (17), noble gases (18).

How do you determine the number of valence electrons?

For main-group elements, valence electrons = group number. E.g., group 1 → 1 valence e⁻; group 16 → 6 valence e⁻.

What is electronegativity and how does it trend?

A measure of an atom's ability to attract bonding electrons. Increases across a period (left → right) and up a group. Fluorine is highest.

What is ionization energy and how does it trend?

Energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom. Increases across a period and up a group.

How does atomic radius trend on the periodic table?

Decreases across a period (more protons pull electrons closer) and increases down a group. Opposite of EN/IE trends.

module 10

after this card, it's module 10 stuff

What is a Lewis dot structure for an element?

A symbol with dots representing the valence electrons. E.g., Na has 1 dot; Cl has 7 dots arranged around the symbol.

How do cations and anions form?

Cations: metals lose valence electrons → positive charge. Anions: nonmetals gain electrons → negative charge.

What is the octet rule?

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8 valence electrons, mimicking the noble gas configuration.

How do you name a binary ionic compound?

Name the cation first (metal name unchanged), then the anion with -ide suffix. E.g., NaCl = sodium chloride.

How do you write formulas for compounds with polyatomic ions?

Balance charges so the total is zero. Use parentheses around polyatomic ions when the subscript > 1. E.g., Ca(NO₃)₂.

How do you name compounds with transition metals?

Include a Roman numeral after the metal name to indicate its charge. E.g., FeCl₂ = iron(II) chloride; FeCl₃ = iron(III) chloride.

Why are Roman numerals used for transition metals? (links back to previous card)

Because transition metals can form more than one possible ion charge (undo the criss-cross method when figuring out the Roman Numeral)

How do you name a binary covalent compound?

Use Greek prefixes (mono, di, tri...) for atom counts. Second element gets -ide. E.g., CO₂ = carbon dioxide; N₂O₄ = dinitrogen tetroxide.

module 11

after this card, it's module 11 stuff

How do you draw a Lewis dot structure for a molecule?

1) Count total valence electrons. 2) Place least electronegative atom as central. 3) Connect with single bonds. 4) Complete octets on outer atoms. 5) Place remaining electrons on central atom. 6) Convert lone pairs to multiple bonds if needed.

What is a resonance structure?

When a molecule can be drawn with more than one valid Lewis structure differing only in pi bond placement. The true structure is a hybrid. E.g., O₃, benzene.

How do you determine the shape of a molecule using VSEPR?

Count electron domains (bonding pairs + lone pairs) around the central atom. E.g., 4 bonding/0 lone = tetrahedral; 3 bonding/1 lone = trigonal pyramidal; 2 bonding/2 lone = bent.

How do you determine if a bond is polar or nonpolar?

Compare electronegativities. ΔEN ≈ 0 → nonpolar covalent. ΔEN moderate → polar covalent. ΔEN large → ionic.

How do you determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar?

Even with polar bonds, a molecule is nonpolar if bond dipoles cancel due to symmetry (e.g., CO₂). If dipoles don't cancel, the molecule is polar (e.g., H₂O).