AP psych cognition

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom up processing

analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain

Top down processing

information processing guided by higher level mental processes and prior knowledge

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another based on expectations

Gestalt psychology

a school of thought that focuses on how people organize sensory information into wholes

Closure

the tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive complete objects

Figure ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

Proximity

the tendency to group nearby objects together

Similarity

the tendency to group similar objects together

Selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on one conversation while ignoring others yet still detect important information

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue where the brain compares differences between images from each eye

Convergence

a binocular cue where the eyes turn inward to focus on close objects

Monocular cues

depth cues that require only one eye

Relative size

a cue where smaller objects are perceived as farther away

Linear perspective

a cue where parallel lines appear to meet as distance increases

Texture gradient

a cue where texture becomes finer as distance increases

Relative clarity

a cue where blurry objects are perceived as farther away

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled

Episodic memory

memory of personal experiences tied to specific times and places

Semantic memory

memory of general knowledge and facts

Implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

memory of how to perform skills and actions

Sensory memory

the immediate and very brief recording of sensory information

Iconic memory

a brief visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second

Echoic memory

a brief auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds

Short term memory

a temporary memory system that holds limited information briefly

Long term memory

a relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of memory

Working memory

an active system that processes and manipulates information

Central executive

the component of working memory that directs attention and coordinates processing

Phonological loop

the part of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

the part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information such as space time and frequency

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the process of converting information into a form that can be stored

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of accessing stored information

Shallow encoding

processing information based on surface features such as appearance

Deep encoding

processing information based on meaning and relevance

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed practice to result in better long term retention

Massed practice

studying information all at once which leads to weaker retention

Chunking

organizing information into meaningful units

Mnemonic devices

memory aids that use imagery or organization

Encoding failure

the inability to process information into memory

Proactive interference

when older information interferes with learning new information

Retroactive interference

when new information interferes with recalling old information

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into memory of an event

Source amnesia

attributing a memory to the wrong source

Constructive memory

the idea that memory is reconstructed and influenced by meaning

Algorithm

a step by step procedure that guarantees a correct solution

Heuristic

a mental shortcut that allows quick problem solving but may lead to errors

Mental set

the tendency to approach problems using a method that has worked before

Functional fixedness

the inability to see new uses for familiar objects

Availability heuristic

estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

judging probability based on similarity to a prototype

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience solve problems and adapt to new situations

Intelligence quotient IQ

a numerical score representing a persons intelligence level

Reliability

the consistency of test results over time

Validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure

Primacy effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list

Recency effect

the tendency to remember items at the end of a list

Serial position effect

the tendency to recall the first and last items best

Testing effect

improved memory through retrieving information during practice