Vietnam: KT4+5: Nixon and Ford’s policies – Vietnamisation, peace and Communist victory, 1969–75 + The impact of conflict on civilians in Vietnam and attitudes in the USA

What were the reasons for the failure of early peace talks in Vietnam before 1968?

1967: VC conditional - bombing must stop before peace talks

→ Johnson agreed, but Tet happened

Why did Johnson announce he wouldn’t run for re-election in 1968?

Hoped to facilitate peace talks by stepping aside.

What was Nixon’s campaign promise in relation to Vietnam?

Nixon promised to “end the war and win the peace” + achieve “peace with honour” appealing to war-weary Americans

What was the 'secret bombing' and where did it take place?

Mar. 1969: Nixon ordered covert bombing campaigns in Cambodia and Laos

What was the Kent State incident and its significance?

4 students shot dead by the National Guard in Ohio during anti-war protests + 11 other students injured

→ more opposition to War

What was Vietnamisation?

Nixon’s policy to withdraw US troops and strengthen South Vietnamese forces

No. of US troops in Vietnam

June 1969	543,000
January 1972	156,800
June 1972	47,000

How was the ARVN strengthened under Vietnamisation?

• Increased no.s (1968: ARVN numbers - 82,000 → 1970: 1 mil.)

• Updated M-16 Armalite rifles

• Better pay + working conditions

What happened during the North Vietnamese Spring Offensive?

The ARVN held back the offensive despite 8,000 casualties; North Vietnamese casualties were nearly 5 times greater.

How did the US respond to the Spring Offensive?

Through a heavy bombing campaign called Operation Linebacker I, dropping 150,000 tons of bombs from May to October 1972 on Hanoi

What roles did Kissinger and Le Duc Tho play in the Paris Peace Talks?

They led negotiations to end US involvement, with Kissinger representing the US and Le Duc Tho for North Vietnam.

When was the Paris Peace Agreement signed?

January 1973

What was the impact of the renewed North Vietnamese offensive after US withdrawal?

North Vietnam resumed fighting, exposing the weakness of ARVN and the fragility of peace without US military presence.

What was President Ford's diplomatic response to the renewed conflict in Vietnam?

He requested Congress for aid to South Vietnam but was denied; US involvement officially ended with no further military support.

What was the final North Vietnamese offensive?

North Vietnamese forces, led by 100 SU tanks, launched a rapid attack

What happened during the Fall of Saigon?

North Vietnamese tanks entered Saigon, leading to the unconditional surrender of South Vietnam and the end of the war.

How were civilians in Vietnam affected by the war?

Millions were displaced, suffered from bombing, defoliation, and violence

Infrastructure was destroyed

Famine and disease spread widely

How much time did Calley end up serving?

Sentenced March 1971 but released in Nov. 1974 due to Nixon’s intervention

What was the Phoenix Programme’s aim?

Identify + eliminate Vietcong operatives

How did the Vietnam War affect US society?

Rising casualties, costs, and the draft

→ widespread protests, political division, and a crisis of confidence in government.

What were some key anti-war demonstrations in the US?

16-20 Oct. 1967: 100,000 at ‘Stop the Draft’ week in Central Park, NYC

1969: 500,000 in Washington (largest political protest in US history)

What were pro-war demonstrations and who supported them?

Pro-war rallies were held, often by conservative groups, veterans, and those supporting patriotism and Cold War containment.

What were the Fulbright Hearings?

22 Senate hearings led by Senator J. William Fulbright

• testimony and debate from several members of Congress

• reps from pro-war + anti-war org.s

What issues were raised during the Fulbright Hearings?

Testimonies highlighted

• government deception

• military failure

• rising domestic opposition

What was the impact of the draft on opposition to the war?

Drafting 40,000 young men/mo.

→outrage, esp. students and minorities who were disproportionately affected

How did the Civil Rights Movement link to opposition to the war?

1967:

• 23% combat troop casualties = Black

• Martin Luther King joined the anti-war movement: criticised Johnson spending on war instead of home policies

What was the cost of the Vietnam War to the US?

$25 billion/year ($167 billion total) + 58,000 US deaths

fragging

murdering officers with fragmentation grenades

How widespread was drug use among US soldiers in Vietnam?

• By Nov. 1967: Official report - 1/3 used drugs

• By 1971: 15% addicted to hard drugs

• 4x as many soldiers were being treated for drug related problems as they were for combat wounds

What was the Watergate Scandal and its relevance to Nixon?

Nixon’s involvement in the cover-up of political spying led to his resignation in 1974, affecting trust in government during the Vietnam era.

Desertion stat

1969–1971: Desertions increased by 400%

When was Vietnamisation announced

3 November 1969

When was the Spring Offensive?

1972

When did the Paris Peace Talks start?

Informally: Jan. 1972 - Henry Cabot Lodge visits Paris

Officially: Aug. 1972 (Nixon-Le Duc Tho secret talks)

Paris Peace Agreement terms

• A ceasefire would begin Jan. 1973

• Within 60 days the USA would withdraw its forces

• Future (possible reunification) democratic elections in Vietnam

Who exposed My Lai?

Seymour Hersh

When was the Fall of Saigon?

30 Apr. 1975

When was the final N. Viet offensive?

Mar.-Apr. 1975

When were the portion of the Fulbright Hearings focusing on Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW)?

20 Apr. - 27 May 1971

When did HCM step down?

1969

Why did McNamara also resign?

Disillusionment with the war, failed ‘Great Society’ promised by Johnson

Other reason for Vietnamisation

• SEATO no longer supportive of US involvement

• Conventional warfare wasn’t working but couldn’t risk nuclear weapons due to China + USSR

Persevering problems in ARVN

• ARVN morale low

• Corruption: ARVN officers selected based on loyalty to regime, not merit

• Corruption w/ gov. officials: Opponents labelled as communists → arrest, torture

How many officers were killed due to gov. corruption to eliminate opponents?

1968-71: 40,000

Reasons for anti-war sentiment

1.Opposition to the draft

2.Increase in demoralised US personnel being deployed

3.Increase in fatalities

4.Role of the media

5.Development of anti-war protest movement

How many US casualties by Nov. 1967?

15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded

How many US troops by Nov. 1967?

Almost 500,000

How many colleges were affected by university protests?

400 colleges across the country were closed as 2 million students went on strike

When was the Lincoln Memorial protest?

Oct. 1967

How many were at the Lincoln Memorial protest?

100,000 (30,000 more continued at the Pentagon)

→ 100s arrested

When did Lodge resign?

December 1969, after no progress in talks

‘secret bombing’ aim

• Sever supply lines on Trail

• Pressure North Vietnam in peace talks

• Retain ARVN confidence

• Destroy as many VC bases as possible before US left

N. Viet demands at Paris Peace Talks

A return to the Geneva Agreement of 1954​ without ‘foreign’ (US) interference - withdrawal of US troops​

US demands at Paris Peace Talks

South Vietnam determine its own future without ‘foreign’ (Hanoi, China, the SU) interference

Reunification would require all Vietnamese to vote in favour at free elections

US key figures at Paris Peace Talks

President Richard Nixon (replaced Johnson from January 1969)

Dr Henry Kissinger (Chief Foreign Adviser and negotiator)

N. Viet key figures at Paris Peace Talks

Ho Chi Minh

General Giap (Defence Minister)

Le Duc Tho (Chief Negotiator)

+4 politburo members

How many bombs were dropped during the ‘secret bombings’?

3,630 flights over Cambodia dropped 110,000 tons of bombs

‘secret bombings’ name

Op. Menu

‘secret bombings’ dates

Mar. 1969 - May 1970

When did Nixon order U.S. ground troops to invade Cambodia?

28 Apr. 1970

When did Nixon announce the Cambodian invasion?

1 May 1970

When did the Laos invasion start?

8 Feb. 1971 - ARVN supported by US helicopters, bombers and artillery, but soon defeated

What allowed peace talks to start in 1968?

31 March 1968: Johnson broadcast his intention of withdrawing + suspending bombing campaign

→ N willing to talk

How many ground troops invaded Cambodia?

20,000

When did Congress vote to remove the GoT Resolution?

Jun. 1970

Laos invasion name

Operation Lam Son 719

Why did the Laos invasion fail?

Inadequate force of 30,000 ARVN

Laos invasion aim

Disrupt the supply line along the Ho Chi Minh trail

Op. Linebacker equipment

Smart bombs – guided by lasers – pinpointed enemy targets

What did Op. Linebacker destroy?

North Vietnamese

• roads, bridges

• lorries, trucks, tanks, railway lines

• storage depots (port of Haiphong devastated)

war agreement at home stat

21 May 1972: <30% of Americans agreed with the Vietnam War. 

What stalled the Paris Peace Talks?

• Hanoi and the National Liberation Front (NLF) refused to recognise the legitimacy of the South Vietnamese government

• The US demanded they recognise their sovereignty

How much did the US invest in ‘Hearts and Minds’?

1967: >$550 million out of $2b budget

What was the US response to the imminent fall of Saigon?

Operation Frequent Wind: US civilians and military personnel + S. Viet evacuated by helicopter after 27 Apr.: VC encircled Saigon → Little resistance

When was the War Powers Act adopted?

1973

What was the War Powers Act?

Limited power of Pr to engage in conflict w/o Congress’ approval

War casualties for N. Viet

1.3 to 9 million total casualties

250,000 civilian casualties

What did Ford do regarding Vietnam after the War?

1975: President Ford also imposed a trade embargo on Vietnam, which was designed to prevent Vietnam from developing economic relations with the West. 

How many bombs were dropped on Vietnam during the War?

7 mil. (vs. 2 mil. during WWII)

How much forest did Agent Orange destroy?

1969: >1 mil. ha

How many people moved due to the war?

About 1.5 million people left the countryside.  Approximately two thirds of these left for the USA.

How many Americans served in the War?

2.7 mil.

Fulbright Hearings conclusion

Fulbright came to believe that the regime in Saigon was corrupt and irredeemable and that U.S. escalation of the war was a mistake

When was the Phoenix Programme?

1967-72

Who were trained for Phoenix?

CIA + USAID’s Public Safety Division trained Provincial Reconnaissance Units (PRU) as “hunter-killer” squadrons

What tools did Phoenix use?

• Computer tech

• Coordination of military + civilian intelligence agencies

What did the Phoenix squadrons do?

• Torture to extract info

• Intimidation

• Killings

• Wanted posters/Blacklists

• Spies

When did Congress begin to investigate Phoenix?

1971

How many VC suspects were arrested/killed during Phoenix?

81,000

What was Phoenix based on?

Psychological warfare + counter-terror op.s