CIS US History unit 4 test review

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Who: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded in 1960 by college students involved in the civil rights movement, with guidance from civil rights activist Ella Baker. Important leaders included John Lewis, Diane Nash, and later Stokely Carmichael.

What: SNCC was a civil rights organization that coordinated nonviolent direct-action protests such as sit-ins, Freedom Rides, marches, and voter registration drives. Unlike some older civil rights groups, it focused on grassroots organizing and giving ordinary people a direct role in the movement.

Where: SNCC operated primarily in the Southern United States, especially in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina, where segregation and voter suppression were strongest.

When: Founded in April 1960 at Shaw University in North Carolina after the success of student-led sit-ins that began in Greensboro earlier that year.

Why: SNCC was created because many young activists wanted an organization specifically dedicated to student involvement in the civil rights movement. They sought to challenge segregation, secure voting rights for African Americans, and push for social change through nonviolent protest.

How it's significant: SNCC became one of the most influential organizations of the civil rights movement. It helped organize sit-ins that challenged segregated businesses, participated in the Freedom Rides of 1961 to test federal desegregation laws, and led voter registration efforts throughout the South. During Freedom Summer in 1964, SNCC worked to register African American voters in Mississippi despite violent opposition. The group's activism exposed racial injustice to the nation and helped build support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Later, under Stokely Carmichael, parts of the organization moved toward Black Power, reflecting growing frustration with the slow pace of change.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Who: The crisis involved U.S. President John F. Kennedy, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, and Cuban leader Fidel Castro.

What: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union after American intelligence discovered Soviet nuclear missile sites being built in Cuba. The missiles could reach much of the United States within minutes.

Where: Cuba, an island nation located about 90 miles south of Florida. The crisis also involved Washington, D.C., Moscow, and the waters surrounding Cuba.

When: October 16–28, 1962.

Why: After Castro established a communist government in Cuba, the United States attempted to overthrow him through the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961. To protect Cuba and gain a strategic advantage in the Cold War, the Soviet Union secretly installed nuclear missiles on the island. The United States viewed these missiles as a direct threat to national security.

How it's significant: The Cuban Missile Crisis is considered the closest the world came to nuclear war during the Cold War. Kennedy responded by placing a naval blockade, or "quarantine," around Cuba to prevent additional Soviet missiles from arriving. After tense negotiations, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba. In return, the United States promised not to invade Cuba and secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey. The crisis demonstrated the dangers of the nuclear arms race and led to improved communication between the United States and the Soviet Union, including the creation of a direct hotline between their leaders.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Who: Proposed by President John F. Kennedy and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The law was strongly supported by civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr..

What: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was landmark federal legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin and prohibited segregation in many public places.

Where: Applied throughout the United States.

When: Signed into law on July 2, 1964.

Why: African Americans continued to face widespread segregation and discrimination nearly a century after the end of slavery. Civil rights activists used protests, marches, boycotts, sit-ins, and legal challenges to pressure the federal government into taking action. Events such as the Birmingham Campaign and the March on Washington helped build support for federal legislation.

How it's significant: The Civil Rights Act became one of the most important laws in American history. It outlawed segregation in public accommodations such as hotels, restaurants, theaters, and parks. It prohibited discrimination in employment and strengthened the federal government's ability to enforce school desegregation. The law significantly weakened the Jim Crow system that had dominated the South for decades and expanded legal protections for minorities and women.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Who: Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. It was supported by civil rights organizations including SNCC, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr..

What: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was federal legislation designed to protect the voting rights guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amendment and eliminate barriers that prevented African Americans from voting.

Where: Applied nationwide but focused particularly on Southern states where voter suppression was most severe.

When: Signed into law on August 6, 1965.

Why: Despite the Fifteenth Amendment, many Southern states used literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses, registration restrictions, intimidation, violence, and other tactics to prevent African Americans from voting. Public outrage increased after peaceful voting-rights marchers were attacked by state troopers during Bloody Sunday in Selma, Alabama, in March 1965.

How it's significant: The Voting Rights Act banned literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices. It authorized federal officials to oversee voter registration and elections in areas with histories of discrimination and required some states to obtain federal approval before changing voting laws. The law dramatically increased African American voter registration and turnout throughout the South. It also led to the election of more African American officials and helped ensure that voting rights were protected by the federal government when states failed to do so.

Great Society

Who: The Great Society was a collection of domestic programs and reforms proposed and led by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

What: It was an ambitious set of government programs designed to eliminate poverty, reduce racial injustice, improve education, expand healthcare, and improve the quality of life for Americans.

Where: Throughout the United States.

When: Primarily between 1964 and 1968 during Johnson's presidency.

Why: Johnson believed that economic prosperity alone was not enough to solve the nation's problems. He wanted the federal government to address poverty, unequal educational opportunities, inadequate healthcare, and racial discrimination.

How it's significant: The Great Society produced some of the most important domestic legislation in modern American history. It created Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for low-income Americans, expanded federal funding for education, supported urban development, strengthened environmental protections, and promoted civil rights. These programs greatly increased the role of the federal government in addressing social and economic issues and continue to affect Americans today.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Who: Requested by President Lyndon B. Johnson and passed overwhelmingly by the U.S. Congress.

What: A congressional resolution that authorized the president to take military action in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war.

Where: The Gulf of Tonkin, located off the coast of North Vietnam.

When: Passed on August 7, 1964.

Why: The resolution followed reports that North Vietnamese patrol boats had attacked U.S. naval destroyers, the USS Maddox and USS Turner Joy, operating in the Gulf of Tonkin. Although the first attack occurred, evidence later suggested that the second reported attack may not have happened.

How it's significant: The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave Johnson broad authority to expand U.S. military involvement in Vietnam without seeking a formal declaration of war from Congress. As a result, American troop levels in Vietnam increased dramatically, transforming what had been a limited commitment into a major war. The resolution later became controversial because many Americans believed Congress had given the president too much power based on incomplete or inaccurate information.

The Feminine Mystique

Who: Written by Betty Friedan.

What: A bestselling book that challenged traditional expectations for women and criticized the idea that women could find fulfillment only through marriage, motherhood, and homemaking.

Where: Published and widely read throughout the United States.

When: 1963.

Why: Friedan interviewed and studied many middle-class women who felt unhappy and unfulfilled despite living what society considered ideal lives. She argued that women were being discouraged from pursuing higher education, careers, and personal ambitions.

How it's significant: The book helped launch the modern women's rights movement, often called second-wave feminism. It encouraged many women to question traditional gender roles and seek greater opportunities in education, employment, and public life. The ideas in The Feminine Mystique influenced later efforts to achieve gender equality and contributed to the growth of organizations advocating for women's rights.

Silent Spring

Who: Written by Rachel Carson, a marine biologist and conservationist.

What: A book that exposed the harmful environmental effects of widespread pesticide use, particularly the pesticide DDT.

Where: Focused on environmental conditions in the United States but attracted worldwide attention. Published in US

When: Published in 1962.

Why: Carson became concerned that pesticides were contaminating ecosystems, harming wildlife, and potentially endangering human health. She argued that chemical companies and government agencies were not adequately considering these risks.

How it's significant: Silent Spring is widely credited with launching the modern environmental movement. The book increased public awareness of environmental issues and sparked demands for stronger government regulation of pollutants and pesticides. Its influence contributed to restrictions on DDT, increased environmental research, and eventually the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. It also encouraged Americans to think more critically about the relationship between human activity and the natural environment.

Griswold v. Connecticut

Who: The case was brought by Estelle Griswold and was decided by the Supreme Court of the United States.

What: A landmark Supreme Court case that established a constitutional right to privacy for married couples regarding the use of contraceptives (methods used to prevent pregnancy).

Where: Originated in Connecticut and was decided by the Supreme Court in Washington, D.C.

When: 1965.

Why: Connecticut had a law that prohibited the use of contraceptives, even by married couples. Griswold deliberately challenged the law by providing birth control information and services.

How it's significant: The Supreme Court ruled that although the Constitution does not explicitly mention a right to privacy, several amendments create "zones of privacy" that protect personal decisions. The decision struck down Connecticut's law and established the constitutional right to privacy, which later became the legal foundation for other major cases involving reproductive rights and personal freedoms.

Roe v. Wade

Who: The case involved a Texas woman identified as "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey) and was decided by the Supreme Court of the United States.

What: A landmark Supreme Court case that legalized abortion nationwide during the early stages of pregnancy.

Where: Originated in Texas and was decided by the Supreme Court in Washington, D.C.

When: 1973.

Why: Texas law prohibited most abortions except when necessary to save the mother's life. Roe argued that this violated her constitutional rights.

How it's significant: The Court ruled that a woman's right to privacy, established in part by Griswold v. Connecticut, protected her decision to have an abortion during the early stages of pregnancy. The decision invalidated many state abortion restrictions and made abortion legal nationwide. Roe v. Wade became one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions in American history, fueling decades of political and social debate over abortion rights.

Tet Offensive

Who: Conducted by North Vietnamese forces and the Viet Cong against South Vietnam and its ally, the United States.

What: A large-scale surprise military offensive involving attacks on cities, military bases, and government centers throughout South Vietnam.

Where: Across South Vietnam, including major cities such as Saigon and Hue.

When: January 1968 during the Vietnamese Lunar New Year holiday known as Tet.

Why: North Vietnam hoped to weaken South Vietnamese and American forces, inspire a popular uprising, and reduce support for the war in the United States.

How it's significant: Although U.S. and South Vietnamese forces eventually repelled the attacks and inflicted heavy losses on the Viet Cong, the offensive shocked the American public. U.S. officials had previously claimed that victory was near, but the scale of the attacks suggested otherwise. As a result, public confidence in the government's handling of the war declined, anti-war sentiment increased, and support for continued U.S. involvement in Vietnam weakened significantly.

Title IX

Who: Passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Richard Nixon as part of the Education Amendments of 1972.

What: A federal law that prohibits discrimination based on sex in educational programs and activities receiving federal funding.

Where: Applies to schools, colleges, universities, and other educational institutions throughout the United States that receive federal funds.

When: 1972.

Why: Women and girls often faced unequal treatment in education, including limited access to academic programs, scholarships, and athletic opportunities. Congress sought to ensure equal educational opportunities regardless of sex.

How it's significant: Title IX dramatically expanded opportunities for women and girls in education, especially in athletics. Schools receiving federal funds could no longer discriminate on the basis of sex in admissions, educational programs, or extracurricular activities. The law helped increase female participation in sports, higher education, and leadership positions and became one of the most important pieces of legislation promoting gender equality in the United States.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)

Who: Negotiated between the United States and the Soviet Union. Major leaders involved included President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev.

What: A series of negotiations and agreements aimed at limiting the number of nuclear weapons possessed by the two superpowers during the Cold War.

Where: Negotiations took place in several locations, including Helsinki, Finland, and Vienna, Austria.

When: SALT I was signed in 1972, and SALT II was negotiated in 1979.

Why: By the late 1960s, both the United States and Soviet Union had accumulated massive nuclear arsenals capable of destroying each other many times over. Both nations wanted to reduce the risk of nuclear war and slow the expensive arms race.

How it's significant: SALT represented a major step in the period of détente, or easing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. SALT I limited certain nuclear weapons and included the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, which restricted missile defense systems. Although SALT II was never formally ratified by the United States because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, both sides generally followed its limits for several years. The agreements marked one of the first major efforts to control nuclear weapons during the Cold War.

My Lai Massacre

Who: Carried out by American soldiers from Charlie Company under the command of Lieutenant William Calley.

What: The mass killing of hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, including women, children, and elderly people.

Where: The village of My Lai in South Vietnam.

When: March 16, 1968.

Why: U.S. soldiers believed the village contained Viet Cong fighters or supporters. The tragedy was driven by a combination of extreme psychological exhaustion from guerilla warfare, ambiguous "search and destroy" orders, and the systemic dehumanization of the local population

How it's significant: Between 300 and 500 civilians were killed. The massacre was initially covered up by military officials but became public in 1969 through investigative journalism. News of the killings shocked Americans and increased opposition to the Vietnam War. The incident damaged the reputation of the U.S. military and raised serious questions about American conduct during the war. Lieutenant Calley was later convicted for his role in the massacre.

Pentagon Papers

Who: Secret government documents leaked by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg and published by major newspapers including The New York Times.

What: A classified Department of Defense study detailing U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from the 1940s through the 1960s.

Where: The documents were produced by the U.S. government and released to the American public.

When: Leaked and published in 1971.

Why: Ellsberg believed the American people deserved to know that several presidential administrations had misled the public about the Vietnam War's goals, progress, and likelihood of success.

How it's significant: The Pentagon Papers revealed that government officials had often privately expressed doubts about the war while publicly presenting a more optimistic picture. The leak increased public distrust of government and reinforced anti-war sentiment. The Supreme Court ruled that newspapers could publish the documents despite government objections, strengthening freedom of the press and limiting government censorship.

Watergate

Who: Members of President Richard Nixon's reelection campaign and administration were involved.

What: A political scandal involving a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters and the subsequent attempt to cover up the crime.

Where: The Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C.

When: The break-in occurred in June 1972; the scandal continued until Nixon's resignation in August 1974.

Why: Nixon's campaign sought information about political opponents during the 1972 presidential election. After the burglars were caught, administration officials attempted to hide the White House's involvement.

How it's significant: Investigations by Congress, journalists, and special prosecutors uncovered extensive abuse of presidential power and efforts to obstruct justice. Secret White House tape recordings revealed Nixon's involvement in the cover-up. Facing likely impeachment, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign from office. The scandal greatly damaged public trust in government and led to reforms designed to increase government transparency and limit abuses of executive power.

Oil Embargo

Who: The embargo was imposed by Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), particularly the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC). The United States and several Western nations were the main targets.

What: A ban on oil exports to the United States and certain other countries, causing a major energy crisis.

Where: The embargo originated in the Middle East but had worldwide economic effects, especially in the United States.

When: October 1973 to March 1974.

Why: Arab nations imposed the embargo in response to U.S. support for Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and neighboring Arab states.

How it's significant: The embargo caused oil prices to quadruple, leading to gasoline shortages, long lines at gas stations, inflation, and economic recession in the United States. It demonstrated America's dependence on foreign oil and prompted efforts to conserve energy, increase domestic energy production, and develop alternative energy sources. The crisis also increased the economic and political influence of oil-producing nations.

Iran-Contra Affair

Who: Members of President Ronald Reagan's administration, including National Security Council officials such as Oliver North.

What: A secret operation in which U.S. officials sold weapons to Iran and used some of the profits to fund the Contras, anti-communist rebels fighting the government of Nicaragua.

Where: Involved the United States, Iran, and Nicaragua.

When: The events occurred primarily between 1985 and 1987 and became public in 1986.

Why: Administration officials hoped that selling weapons to Iran would help secure the release of American hostages being held in Lebanon. At the same time, they wanted to support the Contras even though Congress had prohibited direct military aid through the Boland Amendments.

How it's significant: The affair revealed that members of the Reagan administration had secretly bypassed Congress and violated official policy. Investigations raised concerns about executive power, government accountability, and respect for constitutional checks and balances. Although Reagan denied knowledge of key details, the scandal damaged public confidence in his administration and became one of the most significant political controversies of the 1980s.

Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell

Who: Implemented during the administration of President Bill Clinton and applied to members of the U.S. military.

What: A military policy that allowed gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals to serve in the armed forces as long as they did not openly disclose their sexual orientation.

Where: United States Armed Forces.

When: Adopted in 1993 and repealed in 2011.

Why: At the time, military regulations generally prohibited openly gay individuals from serving. The policy was created as a compromise between those who wanted to maintain the ban and those who wanted to end discrimination against LGBTQ+ service members.

How it's significant: Although the policy allowed many LGBTQ+ individuals to serve, it required them to keep their sexual orientation private. Thousands of service members were discharged for violating the policy. Its repeal in 2011 marked a major change in military policy and expanded equal treatment for LGBTQ+ Americans in the armed forces.

Bush v. Gore

Who: The case involved presidential candidates George W. Bush and Al Gore and was decided by the Supreme Court of the United States.

What: A Supreme Court case that resolved the disputed outcome of the 2000 presidential election.

Where: The dispute centered on vote counting in Florida, but the case was decided in Washington, D.C.

When: December 2000.

Why: The election was extremely close, and Florida's electoral votes would determine the winner. Problems with ballots and vote-counting procedures led to recounts and legal challenges. Bush argued that different counties were using inconsistent standards for recounting votes.

How it's significant: In a 5–4 decision, the Supreme Court halted the Florida recount, ruling that the differing recount standards violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The decision effectively awarded Florida's electoral votes—and therefore the presidency—to George W. Bush. The case remains one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions in American history and sparked debate about elections, voting procedures, and the role of the judiciary in politics.

War on Terrorism

Who: Initiated by President George W. Bush, the U.S. government, and its allies in response to terrorist organizations, particularly Al-Qaeda.

What: A global military, political, and intelligence campaign aimed at preventing terrorism, dismantling terrorist organizations, and protecting the United States from future attacks.

Where: Primarily focused on Afghanistan, Iraq, and other regions where terrorist groups operated, but it had worldwide effects.

When: Began after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and continued for many years afterward.

Why: On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four airplanes and carried out attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, killing nearly 3,000 people. The U.S. government sought to eliminate the groups responsible and prevent future attacks.

How it's significant: The War on Terror led to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 to remove the Taliban government that had sheltered Al-Qaeda. It later influenced the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The campaign reshaped American foreign policy, increased military spending, expanded intelligence and surveillance efforts, and led to new debates over national security, civil liberties, and U.S. involvement overseas. It became the central focus of U.S. foreign policy during the early 21st century.

USA PATRIOT Act

Who: Passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush.

What: A federal law that expanded the government's powers to investigate, monitor, and prevent terrorism.

Where: United States.

When: Signed into law on October 26, 2001, shortly after the September 11 attacks.

Why: The government believed stronger tools were needed to identify and stop potential terrorist threats before attacks could occur.

How it's significant: The Patriot Act expanded the authority of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to conduct surveillance, monitor communications, obtain records, and share information between agencies. Supporters argued that it improved national security and helped prevent terrorism. Critics argued that it gave the government too much power and threatened constitutional rights such as privacy and protection from unreasonable searches. The law sparked ongoing debates about balancing security and civil liberties.

Guantanamo Bay

Who: Operated by the U.S. military and used by the U.S. government to detain individuals suspected of terrorism.

What: A detention facility used to hold and interrogate individuals captured during the War on Terror.

Where: Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, a U.S. naval base located in southeastern Cuba.

When: The detention center began receiving prisoners in January 2002.

Why: The U.S. government wanted a location to detain suspected terrorists captured abroad while gathering intelligence and preventing them from returning to combat.

How it's significant: Guantanamo Bay became one of the most controversial symbols of the War on Terror. Many detainees were held for years without formal trials, leading to legal and constitutional challenges. Human rights organizations criticized interrogation practices and detention policies, arguing that they violated international law and due process rights. Supporters argued that the facility helped protect national security by holding dangerous terrorist suspects. The debates surrounding Guantanamo Bay highlighted tensions between national security concerns and the protection of civil liberties during the War on Terror.