History 15 Final Exam Study Guide - Part II: Multiple Choice Terms

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key military operations, political strategies, landmark court cases, and social movements from the History 15 study guide.

Operation Barbarossa

Hitler's surprise invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, motivated by Lebensraum (German for “free space;” used to justify conquest Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union) and ideology; it opened a catastrophic two-front war leading to Germany's defeat.

Eisenhower's "New Look"

A defense strategy that relied on cheaper nuclear deterrence ($"more bang for the buck"$) rather than expensive conventional forces, paired with the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).

Kent State

The May 4, 1970, incident where the National Guard killed 4 student protesters at Kent State University who were protesting Nixon's secret bombing of Cambodia.

Sudetenland

A German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia that Britain and France handed over to Hitler at the 1938 Munich Conference as an act of appeasement.

Brinksmanship

Dulles's strategy of pushing crises to the edge of nuclear war to force Soviet retreats, based on the logic that nuclear threats and MAD served as effective deterrence.

Nixon in China

February 1972 , a historic visit by Nixon to Communist China, the first by a U.S. president, intended to create strategic "triangular" pressure on the USSR.

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)

A secret non-aggression agreement between Hitler and Stalin that divided Eastern Europe—including Poland—between them, allowing Hitler to avoid a two-front war initially.

Sputnik and the Space Race

The USSR's launch of the first artificial satellite in October 1957, which shocked Americans and led to the creation of NASA (1958) and a Cold War proxy for ideological superiority.

SALT Treaties

 SALT I (1972): first arms control deal — froze ICBMs and submarine missiles; limited ABM systems.

• SALT II (1979): set equal ceilings on all nuclear delivery vehicles; never ratified after Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

• Both were cornerstones of détente — first formal acceptance of nuclear parity.

• Significant: superpowers acknowledged the arms race needed limits.

Lend-Lease Act (1941)

Authorized the U.S. to lend or lease approximately $50$ billion dollars in war materials to allies, ending the pretense of U.S. neutrality before Pearl Harbor.

The Warren Court

The Supreme Court era under Earl Warren (1953–1969) characterized by judicial activism and expanded civil rights and criminal defendants' rights.

Détente

A Nixon-Kissinger policy based on Realpolitik (political/ diplomatic approach based on practical, worldly objectives rather than strict moral, ethical, or ideological principle) aimed at reducing Cold War tensions through engagement and pragmatism (decisions are made based on what works to achieve a goal, not on what is considered universally "right") rather than confrontation.

German Invasion of Poland

Launched on September 1, 1939, using Blitzkrieg tactics; it led Britain and France to declare war two days later, officially starting WWII.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

A Warren Court ruling that racially segregated public schools are unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson.

1973 Energy Crisis

Triggered by an OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil embargo in response to U.S. support for Israel, resulting in quadrupled oil prices and contributing to stagflation.

The Fall of France

The May–June 1940 German Blitzkrieg that bypassed the Maginot Line, causing France to fall in $33$ days and leaving Britain alone against Germany.

Rosa Parks / Montgomery Bus Boycott

A $381$-day organized refusal to ride buses starting in 1955 that resulted in the Supreme Court ruling bus segregation unconstitutional and launched MLK Jr. to prominence.

César Chávez

A Mexican-American labor leader who co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) and led the Delano grape strike to organize Latino migrant farmworkers.

The Battle of Britain

A July–October 1940 air campaign where the RAF (Royal Air Force) defeated the German Luftwaffe (Air force), marking Hitler's first major defeat of the war.

Martin Luther King Jr.

A Baptist minister and preeminent civil rights leader who advocated Gandhian nonviolent resistance and delivered the "I Have a Dream" speech.

Betty Friedan

Author of The Feminine Mystique (1963) and co-founder of NOW (National Org. for Women) who helped launch the second-wave feminist movement.

Pearl Harbor

 December 7, 1941: Japan surprise-attacked U.S. naval base in Hawaii — 2,403 Americans killed.

• Coordinated with simultaneous strikes on Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong.

• Japan's goal: destroy Pacific Fleet before the U.S. could mobilize. U.S. carriers escaped.

• Ended American isolationism overnight; U.S. declared war the next day.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

Founded in 1968 to fight discrimination and police brutality; famous for the $71$-day occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973 to protest treaty rights.

• Forced national conversation about treaty violations and reservation conditions.

Japanese Internment

The relocation of $110,000$ to $120,000$ Japanese Americans to camps under FDR's Executive Order 9066 (1942), later upheld internment by Korematsu v. U.S.

Birmingham Crusade (1963)

MLK and SCLC campaign against Birmingham's brutal segregation; "Bull" Connor was Public Safety Commissioner.

• Controversially used children as marchers — Connor responded with fire hoses and police dogs on live TV.

• National outcry forced Kennedy to call segregation a moral wrong and submit the Civil Rights Bill.

• 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (September 1963) killed four Black girls in retaliation.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

A Supreme Court ruling that established abortion as a constitutional right under an implied right to privacy, polarizing American politics.

War in the Pacific

A WWII theater where the U.S. used an "island-hopping" strategy, turning the tide at the Battle of Midway before ending the war with atomic bombs.

Civil Rights March on Washington (1963)

An August 28, 1963, rally of ~$250,000$ people where MLK delivered the "I Have a Dream" speech, pressuring Congress for legislation.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

• Warren Court ruled state-sponsored prayer in public schools unconstitutional (1st Amendment Establishment Clause).

• Even a brief, nondenominational prayer written by a school board violated the separation of church and state.

• Deeply unpopular decision — ran strongly against public opinion.

• Followed by Abington v. Schempp (1963): also banned school Bible readings.

Battle of Coral Sea (May 1942)

• First naval battle in history fought entirely by carrier aircraft — opposing fleets never saw each other.

• U.S. code-breaking allowed Nimitz to intercept Japan's planned invasion of Port Moresby (threatening Australia).

• Mixed result: U.S. lost the Lexington; Japan suffered damage that reduced its carrier strength at Midway.

• Strategic victory: stopped Japan's southern advance for the first time.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

A failed CIA-trained invasion of Cuba by exiles that humiliated Kennedy and contributed to the subsequent Cuban Missile Crisis.

The Burger Court

• Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren Burger (1969–1986), appointed by Nixon expecting conservatism.

• More moderate than expected: upheld many Warren Court precedents.

• Key cases: Roe v. Wade (1973), U.S. v. Nixon (1974 — forced Nixon to release Watergate tapes), Bakke (1978).

• Limited but did not end affirmative action; ruled Nixon must comply with the law.

Atlantic Warfare (Battle of the Atlantic)

The longest WWII campaign involving German U-boats against Allied convoys; won through sonar, radar, and breaking the Enigma code.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

A $13$-day nuclear standoff in October 1962 caused by Soviet missiles in Cuba; resolved by a naval quarantine and the removal of the missiles.

1973 Paris Peace Accords

Agreement that ended direct U.S. military involvement in Vietnam but failed to prevent the fall of South Vietnam 27 months later.

Allied Invasion of Sicily and Italy (1943)

Operation Husky, which led to the overthrow of Mussolini but resulted in a brutal, grinding campaign as Germany occupied northern Italy.

Nikita Khrushchev

The Soviet leader (1953–1964) who built the Berlin Wall and placed missiles in Cuba, ultimately losing power after the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Henry Kissinger

Nixon's National Security Advisor and Secretary of State who used Realpolitik to architect détente and the opening to China.

Battle of Stalingrad (1942–43)

A decisive turning point on the Eastern Front where Soviets encircled $300,000$ German troops, putting Germany permanently on the defensive.

Ho Chi Minh

A Vietnamese communist nationalist who led independence movements against France, Japan, and the U.S.

War Powers Act (1973)

A law passed over Nixon's veto requiring the president to notify Congress within $48$ hours of deploying troops and limiting deployments to $60$ days.

Normandy "D-Day" Invasion (June 6, 1944)

The largest amphibious operation in history ($156,000$ troops) that established a second front in Western Europe.

Fall of Saigon (April 30, 1975)

The capture of the South Vietnamese capital by North Vietnamese tanks, signaling the complete failure of U.S. Vietnamization policy.

U.S. Postwar Economic Boom

A period roughly from 1945–1973 of sustained prosperity and rising real wages that created the modern American middle class.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A landmark law prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public places.

Vietnam Syndrome

A post-Vietnam reluctance by the U.S. to commit troops overseas without clear objectives and strong public support.

Sunbelt

The arc of southern and western states that boomed after WWII due to air conditioning, defense industries, and the highway system.

Johnson's "War on Poverty"

The core of the Great Society launched in 1964, creating programs like Medicare and Medicaid, which successfully lowered poverty rates.

G.I. Bill of Rights (1944)

Provided WWII veterans with funding for college and low-cost mortgages, though race-based local administration often excluded Black veterans.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Prohibited discriminatory practices like literacy tests; it was triggered by the violence of "Bloody Sunday" in Selma, Alabama.

Helsinki Accords (1975)

A 35-nation agreement that recognized European borders and committed signatories to human rights, later used by dissidents to challenge Soviet rule.

Iron Curtain

The phrase used by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the geographical and ideological divide between democratic West and Soviet East.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

A congressional grant of blank-check military authority to LBJ after alleged attacks on U.S. ships, leading to a major escalation in Vietnam.

Stagflation

An economic condition of high inflation and high unemployment that defined the 1970s and defied classical economic theory.

Fall of China (1949)

Mao Zedong's communist victory over U.S.-backed Chiang Kai-shek, which fueled McCarthyism and shifted U.S. Asian strategy toward Japan.

Watts Riots (1965)

The six-day uprising in Los Angeles that exposed the economic inequality and racial tensions existing outside the American South.

Korean War (1950–1953)

A UN-authorized "police action" that stalemated at the 38th parallel after Chinese intervention; known as "the forgotten war."

Malcolm X

A Nation of Islam speaker and Black nationalist leader who argued for self-defense and Black separatism, deeply influencing the Black Power movement.

Berlin Airlift (1948–49)

Truman's response to Stalin's land blockade of West Berlin, delivering over $8,000$ tons of supplies daily via aircraft.

Black Panthers / "Black Power"

An Oakland-based movement that confronted police brutality, carried firearms for self-defense, and initiated community programs like free breakfasts.

Camp David Peace Accords (1978)

A historic 1978 peace agreement brokered by Jimmy Carter between Egypt and Israel.

1968 Democratic National Convention

An event in Chicago where police brutality against antiwar protesters was televised, facilitating Richard Nixon's "law and order" election victory.

Nixon's Vietnamization

A policy of gradual U.S. troop withdrawal from Vietnam while shifting combat roles to the upgraded South Vietnamese military.

Marshall Plan (1948)

A $13$ billion dollar U.S. aid package to rebuild Western Europe and prevent the spread of communism by addressing economic collapse.

Regents of UC v. Bakke (1978)

A Supreme Court ruling that rigid racial quotas in admissions are unconstitutional, though race can be used as one factor in a holistic process.

Nixon Doctrine

A policy stating the U.S. would provide aid to threatened allies, but those allies must provide their own troops for their defense.

National Security Act of 1947

Established the CIA, the NSC, and the Defense Department, creating the institutional structure for the U.S. Cold War strategy.