Psych Exam 2024

Brock University

Uncritical acceptance

A tendency to accept ideas or claims without question, skepticism, or critical analysis, often leading to misinformation.

Gestalt psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes understanding the human mind and behavior as a whole, proposing that the collective experience is greater than the sum of its individual parts.

Psychiatrist

A licensed medical doctor specializing in mental health, including the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses and emotional disorders.

Reinforcer (Varied Ratio)

A principle in operant conditioning where reinforcement is delivered after a varying number of correct responses, promoting high and consistent response rates.

Primary reinforcer

A stimulus that naturally satisfies a biological need, such as food, water, or shelter.

Observational Learning

The process of acquiring new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others, a key element of social learning theory.

High-frequency responses

Behavioral responses that occur frequently and can reinforce less common behaviors, enhancing their occurrence.

Sensory memory

The initial, brief storage of sensory information, retaining impressions of sensory stimuli for a very short duration, typically less than a second.

Anterograde amnesia

A type of memory loss characterized by the inability to form new memories following a traumatic event or brain injury, while past memories may remain intact.

Self-actualization

The process of realizing and fulfilling one's own potential, capabilities, and creativity, representing the highest level of psychological development.

Dynamic unconscious

The aspect of the unconscious mind that contains memories, desires, and motives that can shape behavior but are not readily accessible to conscious awareness.

Operational definition

A clear and precise statement of the procedures or operations used to define research variables, ensuring measurements are specific and replicable.

Psychological Perspectives: Evolutionary

The study of psychological traits as evolved adaptations that enhance survival and reproduction, exploring how evolutionary principles influence human behavior.

Falsification

The methodological process of testing a hypothesis or claim by attempting to demonstrate its incorrectness, essential for scientific inquiry.

Cultural relativity

The concept that an individual's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood within the context of their own culture, promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Survey

A research method involving the collection of information from a sample of individuals, often used to gather data on opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing for comparison with a control group.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related, but does not imply causation or a direct cause-and-effect relationship.

Double-blind study

A research design where neither the participants nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the treatment or placebo, reducing bias.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The main part of the nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and coordinating activities.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of neurons that receive electrical signals from other neurons, playing a crucial role in transmitting information.

Sympathetic nervous system

A component of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses in stressful situations.

Cranial nerves

Nerves that emerge directly from the brain, responsible for various functions including sensory and motor activities in the head and neck.

Peripheral nervous system

The segment of the nervous system that exists outside of the brain and spinal cord, linking the central nervous system with limbs and organs.

Axon terminals

The endpoints of an axon where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with neighboring neurons, facilitating nerve signal transmission.

Myelin sheath

A fatty layer that covers and insulates the axons, enhancing the speed and efficiency of electrical signal transmission across neurons.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's capacity to adapt and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, a fundamental aspect of learning and recovery from injury.

Availability heuristic

A cognitive shortcut used in decision-making that relies on immediate examples or memories that come to mind, potentially leading to skewed judgments.

Cognitive fluency

The ease with which information is processed and understood, often influencing judgments and decisions through perceived clarity.

Creativity

The ability to generate new, original ideas or solutions that are both novel and useful, often involving divergent thinking.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high expectations, promoting a supportive environment that encourages independence and self-regulation.

Object permanence

The understanding developed during infancy that objects continue to exist even when they are not directly observable or perceivable.

Motherese (Parentese)

A simplified and exaggerated form of speech used by adults when talking to infants, enhancing language acquisition.

Illogical thought

Thinking patterns that violate standard logical principles, often characterized by inconsistencies or faulty reasoning.

MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a medical imaging technique used to visualize internal structures of the body, including the brain.

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

A device that records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp, providing insights into brain function.

Visual agnosia

A neurological condition in which an individual cannot recognize familiar visual objects despite having intact vision and awareness.

Midbrain

A central part of the brain that coordinates several important functions, including vision and hearing.

Coordination and balance

The ability to use different parts of the body together efficiently and smoothly, essential for many physical activities.

Cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the brain associated with higher-order functions such as thought, reasoning, language, and sensory processing.

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

Temporal lobe

A region of the brain primarily focused on processing auditory information and is also involved in memory and language.

Limbic system

A set of interconnected brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and arousal, playing a critical role in behavior and learning.

Broca’s area

An area of the brain associated with the production of speech and language processing, typically located in the left hemisphere.

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule

A reinforcement schedule that delivers reinforcement after a specified number of responses, encouraging consistent behavior.

Variable interval (VI) schedule

A reinforcement schedule providing reinforcement after varying time intervals, creating unpredictability in reward timing.

Variable ratio (VR)

A reinforcement schedule providing reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to high and steady rates of action.

Perception of depth

The visual capability to perceive and judge the distance of objects in the environment, crucial for spatial understanding.

Pictorial depth cues

Visual indicators, such as size, overlap, and shading, used to convey depth in two-dimensional images, aiding in spatial perception.

Oxytocin

A hormone that plays a significant role in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth, influencing behaviors such as trust and empathy.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms, often referred to as the sleep hormone.

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects, such as volume and mass, remain constant despite changes in their shape or appearance.

Accommodation

The cognitive process of adjusting one's existing schemas to incorporate new information or experiences, facilitating learning.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, often leading to a relaxed and lenient approach to child-rearing.

Sensorimotor stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, where infants learn about the world through sensory perceptions and motor activities.

Psychological Perspective: Biological

An inherent inclination toward certain traits or behaviors, influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

Discovery learning

An educational approach that emphasizes active exploration and inquiry, allowing students to learn concepts and skills through experience.

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities, intelligence, and talents are static and unchangeable, which can hinder personal growth and development.

Token reinforcement

A form of reinforcement involving the use of tokens that can be earned and exchanged for desired rewards, often used in behavioral programs.

Cognitive psychology

The branch of psychology focused on the study of mental processes, including perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving.

Natural selection

The process through which organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, influencing evolutionary changes.

Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes exploring the unconscious mind and understanding repressed thoughts and emotions.

Spaced practice

A learning technique that promotes retention by studying information over spaced intervals rather than in a single session.

Surrogate

A substitute that takes the place of another person or object, often used in psychological or behavioral contexts.

Developmental psychology

The field of psychology dedicated to understanding how individuals grow and change throughout their life span, from infancy to old age.

Temperament

The innate traits and behavioral tendencies that influence how individuals interact with their environment, often seen in early childhood.

Separation anxiety

An emotional condition characterized by excessive distress in children when separated from their primary caregiver, often seen in early development.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, typically emphasizing obedience and discipline over emotional warmth.

Assimilation

The cognitive process of integrating new experiences into existing cognitive schemas, allowing for consistent understanding of the world.

Pituitary gland

The master gland located at the base of the brain that regulates various endocrine functions, including growth and metabolism through hormone release.

Adrenal glands

Hormone-producing glands situated on top of each kidney that play a vital role in the body's response to stress by releasing hormones like adrenaline.

Psychodynamic theory

A psychological approach that explores the influence of unconscious motivations and childhood experiences on behavior and mental processes.

Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary scientific study of the nervous system, focusing on the structure, function, development, and pathology of the brain and its components.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable prediction regarding the relationship between two or more variables, serving as a basis for scientific research.

Quasi-experimental design

A type of research design that seeks to establish cause-and-effect relationships without the use of random assignment to groups.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A phenomenon where a belief or expectation about an individual or event brings about behavior that confirms that belief.

Representative sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics and demographics of the larger group from which it is drawn.

Correlational study

Research examining the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation, identifying potential correlations but not causation.

Inductive reasoning

A logical process where general conclusions are drawn from specific observations or examples, often used in scientific inquiry.

Linguistic relativity

The hypothesis proposing that the structure and vocabulary of a language influence its speakers' worldview and cognition.

Functional fixedness

The cognitive bias limiting a person to only using an object as it is traditionally utilized, hindering creative problem-solving.

Insight learning

A form of problem-solving characterized by a sudden realization of the solution without trial-and-error processes.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics and philosophy concerned with meaning, including the interpretation of words, phrases, and sentences.

Fixation

The persistent inability to view a problem from a new or different perspective, often hindering problem-solving abilities.

Trial and error

A problem-solving strategy involving testing multiple solutions until a successful one is found.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut used to estimate the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles a typical case.

Base rate fallacy

The cognitive bias whereby people tend to disregard statistical base rates in favor of specific information, leading to incorrect conclusions.

Cross-stimulation

A phenomenon where stimulation in one sensory modality can elicit perceptual experiences in another modality, affecting overall perception.

Convergent thinking

A cognitive process focused on finding the most effective solution to a problem, typically narrowing down multiple possibilities.

Fluency in creativity

The ability to produce a multitude of ideas or solutions within a specific timeframe, enhancing the chances of finding an innovative concept.

Originality in creativity

The capacity to produce ideas that are unique, novel, or unconventional, contributing to the creative process.

Mental set

A cognitive framework or established pattern of thinking resulting from previous experiences, which can inhibit novel problem-solving approaches.

Algorithm

A systematic, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem, often used in mathematical computations and logical reasoning.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that governs involuntary physiological functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus and other organelles, serving as the metabolic center of the neuron.

Spinal cord

The major conduit for transmitting signals between the brain and the rest of the body, composed of nerve fibers encased within the vertebral column.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for calming the body and conserving energy following stressful situations.

Nerve

A bundle of axons that transmits signals between the central nervous system and various parts of the body, facilitating communication.

Ion channels

Proteins embedded in cell membranes that facilitate the passage of ions into and out of cells, crucial for generating electrical signals in neurons.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulus intensity necessary to trigger a response in a sensory neuron, initiating the perception of a stimulus.