FINAL TOUCH UPS THEORY

Ventral rami from which region of the spinal cord form the intercostal nerves?

T1-T11

What is plicae ciruclaris?

Folds in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.

What is intestinal villi?

Tiny, finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients.

Are intestinal villi in the large intestine?

No

Where are plicae circularis most present?

They are most present in the jejunum and the upper part of the ileum of the small intestine.

cisterna chyli

A dilated sac at the lower end of the thoracic duct that collects lymph from the lower body and intestines. L1–L2.

The renal cortex is composed primarily of which structures?

It is primarily composed of nephrons, specifically the renal corpuscles and the proximal and distal convoluted tubules.

are taeli and haustra a part of the large intesine?

Yes, taeli and haustra are features of the large intestine that aid in its structure and function.

Where are the major cerebral blood vessels located?

In the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and pia mater).

Which meningeal layer is tightly attached to the brain?

Pia mater.

Which meningeal layer lies directly deep to the skull?

Dura mater.

What is found in the lateral horn of the spinal cord?

Cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

What is found in the ventral horn?

Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons.

What is found in the dorsal root ganglion?

Cell bodies of sensory neurons.

Which fibre tract separates the caudate nucleus and putamen?

Internal capsule.

Which structure focuses light onto the fovea?

Lens.

Which structure provides the sharpest vision?

Fovea.

Which layer contains the iris, ciliary body and choroid?

Vascular tunic (uvea).

Which layer contains the cornea and sclera?

Fibrous tunic.

What is the function of the ciliary muscle?

Changes lens shape for accommodation.

What muscle constricts the pupil?

Sphincter pupillae.

What muscle dilates the pupil?

Dilator pupillae.

Which division of the ANS constricts the pupil?

Parasympathetic.

What detects rotational head movements?

Cupula within the semicircular ducts.

What detects linear acceleration and head position?

Utricle and saccule.

What are the sensory receptors for hearing?

Hair cells (mechanoreceptors).

Which structure contains the organ of Corti?

Cochlear duct.

Which ossicle contacts the oval window?

Stapes.

Which cranial nerve serves hearing and balance?

Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII).

Which organ is directly innervated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons?

Adrenal gland.

White rami communicantes occur at which spinal levels?

T1-L2.

What do white rami communicantes carry?

Preganglionic sympathetic fibres.

What do grey rami communicantes carry?

Postganglionic sympathetic fibres.

Which paired arteries arise from the ascending aorta?

Coronary arteries.

What is the first branch of the aortic arch?

Brachiocephalic trunk.

Which chamber receives blood from the lungs?

Left atrium.

Which chamber pumps blood into pulmonary circulation?

Right ventricle.

Which structure is NOT found in the right atrium?

Chordae tendineae.

What is the cisterna chyli?

Dilated lymphatic sac that drains into the thoracic duct.

At what vertebral level is the cisterna chyli found?

Approximately L1-L2.

Which duct drains most of the body's lymph?

Thoracic duct. spans from L2-C7

Which structure is found primarily in the renal cortex?

Renal corpuscle.

What is the urine pathway?

Collecting duct → Papilla → Minor calyx → Major calyx → Renal pelvis → Ureter → Bladder → Urethra.

Are the kidneys retroperitoneal or intraperitoneal?

Retroperitoneal.

Which kidney sits lower?

Right kidney.

Which feature is unique to the large intestine?

Haustra.

What are plicae circulares?

Circular folds that increase surface area for absorption.

Function of plicae circulares?

Increase absorptive surface area.

Correct order of small intestine?

Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum.

Is the stomach intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal?

Intraperitoneal.

Which organ concentrates bile?

Gallbladder.

Does the liver produce or concentrate bile?

Produces bile.

Where does fertilisation usually occur?

Ampulla of the uterine tube.

Which ligament connects the ovary to the uterus?

Ovarian ligament.

Which pouch lies between the uterus and bladder?

Vesicouterine pouch.

Which pouch lies between the uterus and rectum?

Rectouterine pouch (Pouch of Douglas).

Which nerve receives contributions from both the lateral and medial cords?

Median nerve.

Which nerve provides sensory innervation to the posterior forearm?

Radial nerve.

Which nerve innervates gastrocnemius?

Tibial nerve.

Which nerve innervates palmaris longus?

Median nerve.

What passes through the foramen rotundum?

Maxillary nerve (CN V₂).

What passes through the foramen ovale?

Mandibular nerve (CN V₃).

What passes through the superior orbital fissure?

CN III, IV, V₁ and VI.

Which cranial nerve innervates trapezius?

Accessory nerve (CN XI).

Which cranial nerve innervates inferior oblique and inferior rectus?

Oculomotor nerve (CN III).

Are taeli and haustra a part of the large intestine?

Yes, taeli and haustra are features of the large intestine that aid in its structure and function.

At what vertebral level is the diaphragmatic opening located?

The diaphragmatic opening is located at the level of the T8 to T10 vertebrae, allowing passage for the inferior vena cava and esophagus.

If the nerve is winding around the humerus?

It is the radial nerve

High pitched noises

The base (start of the tube (basilar membrane) is sensitive to high pitched noises, representing the high frequencies of sound. Only the hair cells sitting at the base

Low pitched noises

The apex of the cochlea is sensitive to low pitched noises, representing the lower frequencies of sound. Only the hair cells sitting at the apex

SMELL

odour molecules —> olfactory epithelium—> olfactory recetpro neurons—> olfactory nerves—→ olfactory blub—> olfactory tract—olfactory cortex (underside of frontal and temporal lobe)

TASTE

Food chemicals
↓
Taste buds
↓
CN VII, IX, X
↓
Brainstem
↓
Thalamus
↓
Gustatory cortex (insular cortex and the frontal operculum)

the nerves involved in taste

Anterior 2/3 of tongue

✅ Facial nerve (CN VII)

---

Posterior 1/3 of tongue

✅ Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

---

Epiglottis and pharynx

✅ Vagus nerve (CN X)

Function of the corpus callosum?

Connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Function of the basal nuclei?

Initiates and regulates voluntary movement.

Function of the insula?

Taste and awareness of internal body sensations.

Function of the cingulate gyrus?

Emotion, motivation, and attention.

Function of the pyramids?

Carry voluntary motor commands (corticospinal tracts).

Function of the olives?

Motor learning and coordination via connections with the cerebellum.

Function of the cerebellum?

Coordinates movement, posture, and balance.

Function of the caudate nuclei?

Involved in the regulation of movement, learning, and memory functions, as well as reward processing.

what is the diacephalon?

The diencephalon is a region of the brain located between the cerebrum and the brainstem. It includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, playing key roles in sensory perception, regulation of autonomic functions, and homeostasis.

what is the epithalamus?

The epithalamus is a part of the diencephalon located above the thalamus, and it includes structures such as the pineal gland which regulates sleep-wake cycles and melatonin production.

what is the telecephalon?

The telencephalon is the largest part of the brain, comprising the cerebral cortex and structures such as the basal ganglia and limbic system, involved in higher brain functions including sensory perception, cognition, and voluntary movement.

what is teh function of the brainstem?

The brainstem is responsible for regulating vital life functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, and it serves as a conduit for signals between the brain and the spinal cord.

superior peduncles connect to

the midbrain (carry outputs from the cerebellum)

middle peduncles

connect to the pons

inferior peduncles

medulla oblongata

Fibre Type GSS

Pain, touch, temp, proprioception. Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus

Fibre Type GVS

Sensation from organs. glossopharyngeal and the vagus

Fibre Type SSS

Vision, hearing, balance. Optic and the vestibulocochlear

Fibre Type SVS

Taste and smell. Facial, glossopharyngeal and the vagus

Fibre Type GSM

Motor to eye and tongue muscles. Oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, hypoglossal and the assecory

Fibre Type GVM

Parasympathetic.

Fibre Type SVM

Chewing, facial expression, swallowing, speaking.

what provides innervation for the cilary muscle?

the parasymapthetic system