Paper 1 - GCSE Edexcel PE

Functions of the Skeletal System

Production of blood cells
Storage of minerals (Calcium and Phosphorus)
Protection of vital organs
Muscle attachment
Formation of joints for movement

Functions of the Skeletal System: Protection

Skull protects the brain
Spine protects the spinal Cord
Ribs protect internal organs
Example: Skull protects brain when rugby player tackles another player

Functions of the Skeletal System: Blood cell production

Bone marrow in the centre of bones make RBCs, WBCs and platelets
Platelets help clotting if you are cut
Red blood cells transport oxygen to working muscles
White blood cells help fight infection

Functions of the Skeletal System: Mineral Storage

Phosphorus and Calcium are vital for maintaining strong healthy bones for exercise to reduce chance of osteoperosis
Phosphorus helps to reduce muscle pain after a hard workout

Functions of Skeletal System: Muscle attachment

Bones provide a place for muscles to attach to
When muscles contract, they pull on the bones to cause movement

Functions of the Skeletal System: Joints for movement

Movement occurs at the joints of skeleton

Classification of bones: Types of Bones

Long bones
Short Bones
Flat Bones
Irregular bones

Types of Bones: Long Bones

Long bones aid movement by working as levers when pulled by different muscles
Examples: Humerus, Femur. Femur allows the kicking leg to experience leverage when kicking

Types of Bones: Short bones

Short bones - weight bearing, shock absorption and spreading loads
Examples: Carpals and Tarsal. Carpals bear weight when gymnast does a handstand. Tarsals help to bear the weight of the body on the standing leg when kicking

Type of Bones: Flat bones

Provide protection and a broad surface for muscles to attach to
Examples: Cranium, ribs, scapula. The cranium protects the brain if it is hit by a cricket ball

Types of Bones: Irregular Bones

Provide protection and a place for muscle attachment
Examples: Vertebrae protects the spinal chord

Upper body bones

Cranium
Clavicle
Sternum
Scapula
Humerus (upper arm)
Ribs
Ulna (forearm)
Radius (wrist)
Pelvis
Carpals
Metacarpals (fingers)
Phalanges

Lower body bones

Femur
Patella (knee)
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges

5 regions of the vertebral column

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacrum
Coccyx

What are joints?

A joint is the place where two or more bones meet

Types of Joints

Pivot
Hinge
Ball and Socket
Condyloid

Movement at pivot joint and example:

Rotation
Example: Neck (atlas and axis)

Movement in hinge joint and example:

Flexion and Extension
Examples: Knee, elbow and ankle

Movement at Ball and Socket joint and example:

Flexion
Extension
Rotation
Circumduction
Abduction
Adduction
Example: Hip, Shoulder

Movement at condyloid joint and example:

Flexion
Extension
Circumduction
Example: Wrist

Flexion and Extension + Examples

Flexion - angle at joint decreases
Example: The knee when the player is preparing to kick a football
Extension - angle at joint increases
Example: The knee when following through after kicking a football

Abduction and Adduction + Examples

Abduction - The movement of a limb away from the midline of the body
Example: Abduction at the shoulder when netballer reaches sideways to mark/intercept
Adduction - The movement of a limb towards the midline of the body
Example: Adduction at the shoulder when a netball player catches a wide ball and brings it nearer to chest

Rotation and Circumduction + Examples

Rotation - When bone at joint moves around its own axis
Example: The shoulder when swimming front crawl
Circumduction - Movement in conical shape
Example: Shoulder action when swimming butterfly

Plantar-flexion and dorsi-flexion + Examples

Plantar-flexion - Movement of foot downwards when you point your toe
Example: Ballerina going on point
Dorsi-flexion - Movement of the foot towards the shin
Example: Athlete pointing toe up when jumping over the hurdle

Ligaments

Join bone to bone
Formed of tough connective tissue that hold bone together
Help keep joints stable
Prevent unwanted movement that might cause an injury

Tendons

Join muscle to bone
They hold the muscle to bone, so that when the muscle contracts, the muscle can pull on the bone and cause movement at joins

Three Muscle Types

Cardiac
Voluntary
Involuntary

Cardiac Muscles + Examples

Cardiac muscles form the heart
Unconsciously controlled
Example: Cardiac muscle in the heart contracts to pump blood around the body

Involuntary muscles + Examples

Found in blood vessels, stomach and intestines
They contract slowly and are unconsciously controlled
Involuntary muscles in the blood vessels help regulate blood flow for vascular shunting

Voluntary muscles + Example

Voluntary muscles are the skeletal muscles that attach via tendons to the skeleton to allow movement
Under conscious control
Example: Biceps contract to flex the arm at the elbow when performing a bicep curl

Deltoid

Top of the shoulder
Abducts the arm at the shoulder
Examples: Lifting your arms above your head to block the ball in volleyball

Latissimus dorsi

Side of the back
Adducts the upper arm at the shoulder/rotates the humerus
Example: Bringing arms back to side during a straight jump in trampolinin

Pectoralis Major

Front of Upper chest
Adducts the am at the shoulder
Example: Follow through from forehand drive in tennis

External Obliques

Between Lower ribs and abdomen
Rotates the trunk and helps pull chest down
Example: Rotating trunk while throwing a javelin

Antagonistic Pairs: Biceps and Triceps

Biceps - Flexion of the arm at the elbow
Triceps - Extension of the arm at the elbow

Antagonistic Pairs: Quadriceps and Hamstrings

Quadriceps - Extension of the leg at the knee
Hamstrings - Flexion of the leg at the knee

Antagonistic Pairs: Gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior

Gastrocnemius - Plantar-flexion at the ankle
Tibialis Anterior - Dorsi-flexion at the ankle

Antagonistic Pairs: Hip flexors and gluteus maximus

Hip flexors - Flexion of leg at the hip
Gluteus maximus - Extension of the leg at the hip

Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibres

Fast Twitch (Type 2a and 2x)
Slow Twitch (Type 1)

Slow twitch Type 1 + Example

Produces low force
Slow speed of contraction
High endurance (aerobic respiration)
Example: Leg muscles in a cross-country race. Keeps going without tiring)

Fast Twitch Type 2a + Examples

Produces high force
Moderate speed of contraction
Medium endurance (Anaerobic)
More resistant to fatigue than Type 2x + Can be trained to be more resistant to fatigue
Example: 400 Metre sprint

Fast Twitch Type 2x + Examples

Produce very high force
Fast contracting
Low endurance (Anaerobic)
Good for short, explosive actions requiring power, speed and strength
Example: Deadlift

3 components of the cardiovascular system

Blood
Blood vessels
Heart

5 Functions of the Cardiovascular system

Transport of Oxygen
Transport of Nutrients
Regulation of Body temperature
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Clotting of open wounds

Transport of oxygen, nutrients and Carbon dioxide

Cardiovascular system transports oxygen to active muscles for energy in physical activity
Carbon dioxide is produced as a by product and is transported away from the muscles to get rid of it

Clotting of open Wounds

Platelets transported in the blood help to clot wounds by gathering at the site and forming a plug to prevent blood loss
Prevents infection and allows performer to stay on field of play after a cut

Regulation of body temperature

When body temperature rises - blood vessels under the skin increase in diameter (vasodilation) to increase blood flow to capillaries under the skin so heat can radiate out
When body temperature drops - blood vessels under the skin decrease in diameter (vasoconstriction) to decrease blood flow to the capillaries under the skin so less heat radiates out

Function of Valves

Valves help keep the blood moving forward by shutting off blood that has passed through to prevent backflow

Pulmonary artery and vein

Pulmonary artery - receives deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to take to the lungs to receive oxygen
Pulmonary - brings oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Path of blood through the heart

Deoxygenated blood - Vena Cava - Right atrium - Tricuspid valve - Right ventricle - Semi-lunar valve - pulmonary artery - lungs - oxygenated blood - pulmonary vein - left atrium - bicuspid valve - left ventricle - semi-lunar valve - aorta - body

Structure of Arteries

Thick muscular and elastic walls
Small internal lumen
Carries oxygenated blood away from heart at a high pressure (apart from pulmonary artery)

Structure of Veins

Thin walls
Contains valves
Large internal Diameter
Carry deoxygenated blood at a low pressure towards the heart (apart from pulmonary vein)

Vascular Shunting

Blood is diverted away from inactive areas like the digestive system and towards active muscles during exercise
Vasoconstriction near inactive areas decreases blood flow and vasodilation near active muscles increases blood flow to active muscles
Allows muscles to receive more oxygen for respiration

4 Components of Blood

Plasma
Red blood cells
Platelets
White blood cells

Red blood cells function

Carry oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Oxygen binds to haemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to working muscles

White blood cells functions

White blood cells help fight infection so that performer can stay illness free before an event so they can train and perform at a high level

Platelet

Help prevent bleeding as they stick to each other and to the walls of the blood vessel which forms a plug to prevent further blood loss so performer can stay on pitch

Plasma

Transport blood cells, platelets and nutrients to different parts of the body

Composition of Inhaled air

Nitrogen - 78%
Oxygen - 21%
Carbon Dioxide - 0.04%

Composition of Exhaled air

Nitrogen - 78%
Oxygen - 16%
Carbon Dioxide - 4%

Differences between inhaled and exhaled air

Nitrogen levels remain the same
Oxygen levels go down as oxygen is used in energy production for activity or recovery
Carbon dioxide levels increase as carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product of energy production

Vital Capacity

The greatest amount of air that can be made to pass into and out of the lungs by the most forceful inspiration and expiration

Tidal Volume

The amount of air inspired and expired with each normal breath at rest or during exercise

Residual volume

Amount of air that remains in lungs after a maximal expiration (stops lungs from collapsing)

Change in Tidal volume due to physical activity + reasons

Tidal volume increases significantly

This happens as there is an increased oxygen demand as working muscles require more oxygen for aerobic respiration therefore breathing deeper brings more oxygen into the alveoli

Carbon dioxide is a waste produce of this energy production therefore increased tidal volume allows more Carbon dioxide to be breathed out

Increasing tidal volume increase the concentration gradient of oxygen in the lungs therefore more oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream

Respiratory System components

Trachea - bronchus - bronchioles - alveoli - alveoles

Inhalation and Exhalation

Intercostal muscles contract and lift chest upwards + outwards
Diaphragm changes from done shape to flatter shape during inhalation and relaxes when exhaled
These actions open the lungs and create a vacuum so air can rush in

Structure of alveoli

Surrounded by capillaries
Very thin walls for quick diffusion
Moist walls so gases can dissolve
Large surface area for quick diffusion

What happens in the Alveoli?

Deoxygenated blood goes into capillaries next to the alveolus
Oxygen diffuses in (Low concentration in blood and high concentration in alveolus)
Carbon dioxide from respiration diffuses into alveolus and is breathed out

Oxygen Debt

The amount of oxygen needed at the end of a physical activity (often anaerobic) break down any lactic acid

VO₂ Max

The volume of oxygen an athlete can consume while exercising at maximum capacity

Aerobic Respiration

Occurs when exercise intensity is low and there is a steady supply of oxygen to muscles
Glucose + Oxygen —> energy + Carbon dioxide + Water
Long-term energy for low to moderate intensity exercise

Anaerobic Respiration

Occurs when exercise intensity is high and the heart + lungs can’t deliver oxygen to the muscles fast enough
Glucose —→ Energy + Lactic Acid
Faster energy release for short term and high intensity exercise
Glucose isn’t fully broken down causing lactic acid production which is toxic and leads to muscle fatigue

Carbohydrates as fuel in the body

Stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen
Used for both aerobic and anaerobic exercise
Broken down faster than fats therefore are the only fuel used in anaerobic work

Fats as fuel in the body

Stored as tissue around the body
Used only for aerobic activity
Require a large amount of oxygen to break down therefore used when intensity is low

Short term effects of exercise

Lactate accumulation
Muscle Fatigue
Increased Heart Rate
Increased Stroke Volume
Increased Cardiac Output
Increased Rate of breathing
Increased Depth of breathing

Muscular Responses to Exercise - Short Term + relevance to performer

Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid which causes muscle fatigue and burning sensation
A games player will fatigue and find it harder to perform at a high intensity + May be forced to slow down

Cardiovascular response to exercise - Short term effects + importance to performer

Increased Heart Rate, Stroke volume and Cardiac Output to ensure that a constant supply of oxygen and glucose reaches the muscles while simultaneously flushing out waste products like Co2

Respiratory response to exercise - Short term effects + importance to performer

Increased Breathing rate and tidal volume increases the volume of oxygen entering the alveoli, which is vital for maintain aerobic energy production + delaying the onset of aerobic respiration

How respiratory + Cardiovascular system work together to allow participation in physical activity

Respiratory System brings oxygen into lungs + increases depth/rate of breathing
Oxygen rich blood is transported via red blood cells to working muscles for respiration

How respiratory + Cardiovascular system work together to allow recovery in physical activity

Blood picks up waste from the muscles which is transported back to the lungs via the blood which is then breathed out
Breathing remains high so that extra oxygen can break down lactic acid produced

Lever System

Fulcrum (joint)
Effort (Muscle)
Load (Weight of limb or object)

First Class lever system

Effort Fulcrum Load
Examples: Heading a ball, Extension of elbow or knee, tricep extension

Second Class Lever system

Fulcrum Load Effort
Example: Standing on tiptoes (ballerina, preparing to jump)

Third Class lever system

Fulcrum Effort Load
Example: Bicep curl, leg extension (most movements in body)

Mechanical Advantage

Occurs in second class levers
The effort arm (distance from effort to fulcrum) is longer than resistance arm (distance from load to fulcrum)
Can move a large load with little effort

Mechanical Disadvantage

Occurs in Third Class Levers
Resistance arm is longer than effort arm
Gain wide range of movement and high speed - cannot life as much weight

Sagittal Plane

Divides Body into Left/Right
Examples: Running, bicep curl, somersault

Frontal Plane

Divides body into front/back
Examples: Star Jump, Side-Stepping, Cartwheel

Transverse Plane

Divides body into top/Bottom
Examples: Discus throw, Full twist Jump

Frontal Axis

Runs through hips
Rotate over/under it
Works with Sagittal Axis
Example: Somersault

Sagittal Axis

Runs through belly button
Rotate around it
Works with Frontal Plane
Example: Cartwheels

Vertical Axis

Axis goes through head to toe
Spin around it
Works with Transverse Plane
Example: Full twist jump in trampolining

Health

A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not just the absence of disease

Fitness

Ability to meet the demands of the environment

Exercise

A form of physical activity done to improve health or fitness

Performance

How well a task is completed

Relationship between health, fitness, exercise and performance

Can be fit but not healthy but exercise improves both
Increased fitness usually leads to better performance but performance can be hindered by poor health

Physical health benefits of exercise

Increased cardiovascular fitness
Improves strength
Improved muscular endurance
Increase flexibility
Improve body composition
Improve performance

Emotional health benefits of exercise

Relieves stress
Increases self-esteem + confidence
Feel good (serotonin) Hormones release