AP 12 Final Exam Review 2026

A comprehensive vocabulary review of AP 12 Biology concepts including biochemistry, genetics, digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory system, and the nervous, excretory, and reproductive systems.

Hemoglobin

A protein used to transport oxygen in the blood.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate; an energy-carrying molecule used in cellular respiration and various cellular processes.

Dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction used in the human body to join molecules together by removing water.

Hydrolysis

The chemical process of breaking down molecules by the addition of water.

Phospholipid

A molecule with a hydrophobic and hydrophilic region that makes up the cell membrane bilayer.

Selectively permeable

A characteristic of the cell membrane that allows it to regulate which substances enter or exit the cell.

Osmosis

A type of passive transport specifically involving the movement of water across a membrane.

Hypotonic

A tonicity state where the concentration of solutes is low, which can cause cells to explode if they take in too much water.

Semi-conservative replication

The process of DNA replication involving unzipping, complementary base pairing, and joining of nucleotides to form two DNA molecules, each with one original and one new strand.

Okazaki fragments

Fragments of DNA produced during replication on the lagging strand that exist due to the directionality of DNA synthesis.

Transcription

The process of copying DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA), occurring within the cell nucleus.

Translation

The process occurring at the ribosomes where mRNA codons are used to determine the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide protein chain.

Enzyme Specificity

The concept that the specific shape of an enzyme determines its function and which substrate it will act upon.

Primary Protein Structure

The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Cellular Respiration

A process involving four phases that uses oxygen to produce energy, while releasing $CO_2$ as a byproduct.

NADH and FAD

Molecules that act as electron carriers during the different phases of cellular respiration.

Peristalsis

The rhythmic contraction of muscles in the digestive tract that moves food along structures like the esophagus and intestines.

Insulin

A hormone produced in the pancreas that maintains blood sugar levels.

Hydrochloric acid ($HCl$)

A component of gastric juice in the stomach that provides a low pH environment for digestion.

Sodium bicarbonate ions

Ions found in pancreatic juice that neutralize the acidic contents entering the small intestine.

Microvilli, Capillaries, and Lacteals

Specialized structures in the small intestine that increase surface area and facilitate the absorption of nutrients.

Sinoatrial (SA) node

The heart's natural pacemaker located in the right atrium that initiates the electrical signal for heartbeats.

Systolic and Diastolic Pressures

The measurements of blood pressure during heart contraction and heart relaxation, respectively.

Foramen ovale

A fetal structure that allows blood to go directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, bypassing the right ventricle and the lungs.

Medulla oblongata

The part of the brain that stimulates breathing by monitoring levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ($H^+$) ions.

Carbaminohemoglobin

A molecule formed when carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin for transportation in the blood.

Bicarbonate ions

The form in which most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood after reacting with water via carbonic anhydrase.

Nodes of Ranvier

The gaps in the myelin sheath of a neuron that allow for saltatory transmission, speeding up the nerve signal.

Reflex arc

The nerve pathway involving a receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector that allows for rapid, involuntary responses.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions, divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney, containing the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, and various tubules for urine formation.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A hormone released to stimulate water reabsorption in the body, maintaining fluid balance.

Acrosome

The part of the sperm head containing enzymes necessary to penetrate the egg.

Corpus luteum

A structure in the ovary formed from a follicle after ovulation that produces progesterone to maintain the endometrium.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

A hormone produced after implantation that maintains the corpus luteum and increases progesterone production.

lipids

Fats and oils that store energy and make up cell membranes

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, primarily serving as energy sources in living organisms.

proteins

Large biological molecules made of amino acids that perform various functions, including catalyzing reactions and providing structural support.

nucleic acids

Biological molecules composed of nucleotide units that store and transfer genetic information. They include DNA and RNA.

Polar nature of water

Water is a polar molecule, meaning it has a partial positive charge on one side (hydrogens) and a partial negative charge on the other (oxygen), allowing it to form hydrogen bonds.

Water as a solvent

Due to its polar nature, water is an excellent solvent for ionic and polar substances, allowing it to dissolve a variety of compounds.

Active transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, requiring energy in the form of ATP.

Passive transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane without the use of energy, typically occurring along the concentration gradient (from high to low concentration) and allowing substances to enter or exit the cell naturally.

Diffusion

is the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.

Facilitated transport

is the process of transporting molecules across a cell membrane via specific carrier proteins, assisting the movement from high to low concentration, without the use of energy.

What is the main difference between active and passive transport

Active transport needs energy to move molecules from low to high concentration, while passive transport moves molecules from high to low concentration without energy.