AP PSYCH - Key Vocabulary

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Placebo Effect

Feeling as if in the experimental group while being in the control group.

Directionality Problem

In correlation research, uncertainty about which variable affects the other.

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that an outside variable is influencing both correlated variables.

Informed Consent

Participants' agreement to take part in a study after being informed of risks.

Deception

Misleading participants about aspects of a study for valid research purposes.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true purpose and results of a study after participation.

Nature

Genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.

Nurture

External factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education.

Central Nervous System

Includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body.

Peripheral Nervous System

Relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Autonomic Nervous System

Governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Governs processes that are voluntary and enables sensations.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information in the brain and nervous system.

Gilal Cells

Support cells that provide structural and metabolic support for neurons.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway that controls automatic responses to stimuli.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization

A change in a neuron's membrane potential, making it more positive.

Refractory Period

A brief period after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

Neuron is in a settled manner but has become aware of surroundings. Small charges are apparent.

Reuptake

Travelers on stand-by, neurotransmitters in synapse recycled for possible later use by previous (pre-synaptic neuron).

Absolute Refractory Period

After firing, no chance of a refire until regrouped or at proper voltage.

Relative Refractory Period

Earliest moment after firing when a neuron may fire again though not entirely regrouped or back to Resting State.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerves.

Myasthenia Gravis

A condition causing weakness in the voluntary muscles due to nerve signal issues.

Excitatory

Signals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Inhibitory

Signals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Dopamine

Plays a key role in pleasure, motivation, and reward, as well as in regulating movement. An undersupply can lead to Parkinson's Disease while an oversupply can lead to Schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Helps regulate mood, appetite, sleep, and emotional well-being. An undersupply can lead to depression while an oversupply can lead to OCD.

Norepinephrine

Involved in the body's stress response, affecting alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight reaction. An undersupply can lead to Bipolar Disorder while an oversupply can lead to high blood pressure.

Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory. An oversupply can lead to overstimulation of the brain. Connects with MSG.

GABA

Inhibits nerve activity in the brain, helping to calm and reduce anxiety. An undersupply can lead to insomnia and seizures while an oversupply can lead to sleep/eating disorders.

Endorphins

Act as natural painkillers and help to reduce stress and promote a feeling of well-being. An oversupply can lead to inadequate pain warnings while an undersupply leads to intense pain.

Substance P

Transmits pain signals and is involved in the body's response to injury. Abnormal levels can lead to Major Depressive Disorder and PTSD.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. An undersupply can lead to paralysis while an oversupply can lead to violent muscle contractions.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates hunger and energy balance.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with bonding and social connections.

Agonists

Mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effects, encouraging neural firing. Examples include opioids.

Antagonists

Block a neurotransmitters effects, discouraging neural firing. Examples include caffeine.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Medications that block neurotransmitter reabsorption to increase their effects.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase nervous system activity.

Depressants

Drugs that slow down nervous system activity.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception and reality.

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that also produce euphoria.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

Medulla

The lowest part of the brainstem and connects the spinal cord to the brain. Regulates key body functions such as breathing/heartrate & blood pressure.

Reticular Activating System

Control some voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion.

Cerebellum

Controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

Divided into two hemispheres and includes the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala), corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.

Limbic System

Brain structures involved in emotions and memory.

Thalamus

Switchboard of the Brain, not part of limbic system. It diagnoses all of our senses and sends to appropriate lobes for processing. Connects with imagination & abstract thought.

Hypothalamus

An area of the brain that produces hormones that control: Body temperature. Heart rate. Hunger. Mood.

Pituitary Gland

Located on the underside of the brain, below limbic system. Often works with the Hypothalamus. Specifically affects thirst, sexual behavior, paternal/maternal behavior.

Hippocampus

Warehouse for the transfer of short term/working memory into long term memory. Transfers learning into stored memory.

Amygdala

A small, almond-shaped structure in the brain that plays a key role in processing emotions, motivation, and memory

Corpus Callosum

Nerve fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Occipital Lobes

Control visual information processing and are located in the rear of the brain.

Temporal Lobes

Control auditory and linguistic processing and are located on the sides of the brain.

Parietal Lobes

Brain region involved in sensory processing and spatial awareness.

Frontal Lobes

Control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Split Brain Research

Studies on individuals with a severed corpus callosum to understand brain specialization.

Broca's Area

A brain region crucial for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Area of the brain that processes language. Involved in transforming visual impressions of letters into mental representations of speech sounds.

Cortex Specialization

The idea that different brain areas have specialized functions.

EEG

Produces amplified tracings of waves of electrical brain activity. Records electrical activity of the brain. Widely used in sleep research.

fMRI

Combines elements of MRI and PET scans. Shows details of brain structure with info about blood flow in the brain, linking brain structure with brain activity during cognitive tasks.

Lesioning

Damaging brain tissue to study function.

NREM 1

Eyes closed, slow rolling of eyes. Average of 5-10 minutes. Theta waves are present. Transitional stage where one is easily awakened. Time of hypnogogic experiences, or dream-like sensations.

NREM 2

Around half your night, stilly easily awoken, transitional stage 2. Far less aware of surroundings. Going from theta waves in light sleep to delta waves in deep sleep.

NREM 3 & 4

Slow wave sleep, delta waves, very relaxed. Slow and regular heart rate. Can fall back asleep easily. Associated with growth and development for children.

Hypnogogic Sensations

Vivid sensory experiences that occur at sleep onset.

REM Sleep

Rapid-eye movement sleep. Considered paradoxical because it produces waves similar to wakefulness, but the body is at its most relaxed. Dreaming typically occurs during REM sleep.

REM Rebound

Increased REM sleep after sleep deprivation.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Proposes that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.

Memory Consolidation Theory

Suggests that sleep, particularly slow-wave sleep and REM sleep, is crucial for the stabilization and strengthening of newly acquired memories.

Memory Restoration Theory

The idea that sleep helps consolidate memories.

Narcolepsy

Neurological disorder marked by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, irresistible sleep attacks.

REM Sleep Disorder

A condition where individuals physically act out dreams.

Sleep Apnea

Condition where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, leading to fragmented sleep and decreased oxygen levels.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, involves engaging in complex behaviors while in a state of deep sleep, with no conscious awareness or memory of the event.

Sensation

The process of detecting and encoding environmental stimuli. It involves our sensory systems working together to capture information.

Transduction

The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals.

Absolute Threshold

The lowest level of a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time.

Just-Noticeable Difference

The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Weber's Law

The principle that the just-noticeable difference is proportional to stimulus intensity.

Synesthesia

A phenomenon that causes sensory crossovers, such as tasting colors or feeling sounds

Retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye.

Lens

The eye structure that focuses light onto the retina.

Accommodation

The lens changing shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Rods

Cells that lie in the periphery of the eye and detect shapes and movement, but not color. Mainly activated in low-light environments. Play a role in light and dark adaptation.

Trichromatic Theory

Explains color vision through three types of cones in the fovea processing color and detail. Blue cones detect short wavelengths, green detects medium, and red detects long wavelengths.

Opponent-Process Theory

A theory of color vision that suggests colors are perceived in pairs of opposites (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).

Fovea

The central part of the retina, responsible for sharp vision.

Cones

Specialized nerves that convert light into neural impulses. They are responsible for color vision and are concentrated in the fovea, the central area of the retina.

Ganglion Cells

Neurons in the retina that transmit visual information to the brain.

Dichromatism

A condition where individuals perceive only two colors due to a color vision deficiency.

Monochromatism

A rare condition where individuals see the world in shades of gray due to a complete lack of color vision.