Personality

How is 'personality' defined in psychology?

It refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that lead individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

From which Latin word is the term 'personality' derived?

It comes from the word 'persona', which referred to a mask worn by an actor in the ancient world.

Which four bodily fluids or 'humors' did Hippocrates believe were associated with human temperaments?

The four fluids are yellow bile, black bile, red blood, and white phlegm.

How did the physician Galen describe the personality of a 'choleric' person?

He described them as passionate, ambitious, and bold.

What is the core premise of the discredited pseudoscience known as phrenology?

It proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s personality traits, character, and mental abilities.

Which two major axes did Wilhelm Wundt suggest for describing personality?

The axes are emotional/nonemotional and changeable/unchangeable.

According to Freud, which two unconscious drives are the primary forces that influence personality?

The primary forces are sex and aggression.

What analogy did Sigmund Freud use to explain the relationship between the conscious and unconscious mind?

He compared the mind to an iceberg, where only about one-tenth is conscious and the rest is unconscious.

In Freudian theory, what is 'repression'?

It is the process of keeping unacceptable urges and desires in the unconscious.

Which part of the personality, present from birth, operates on the 'pleasure principle'?

The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of primitive drives.

What is the primary function of the 'superego' in Freud's personality structure?

It acts as a moral compass or conscience that tells us how we should behave based on social rules for right and wrong.

Which part of the personality operates on the 'reality principle' and is seen by others as the self?

The ego operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and superego.

According to Freud, what leads to the development of 'neurosis'?

Imbalances in the system where the ego cannot effectively balance the demands of the id and superego.

How do 'ego defense mechanisms' function within the human psyche?

They are unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Concept: Reaction Formation

Definition: An ego defense mechanism where someone expresses feelings and behaviors opposite to their actual, anxiety-inducing inclinations.

Concept: Sublimation

Definition: An ego defense mechanism where unacceptable urges are redirected into socially acceptable and productive channels.

What is the 'anal-retentive' personality type according to Freud?

A personality characterized by stinginess, stubbornness, and a compulsive need for order, resulting from harsh toilet training.

In the phallic stage, what is the 'Oedipus complex'?

It is a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father, whom he sees as a rival.

What occurs during the 'latency period' of psychosexual development?

Sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on school, friendships, hobbies, and sports.

What is the primary motivator behind thoughts and behaviors in Alfred Adler’s individual psychology?

The drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority through a striving for superiority.

Which neo-Freudian theorist proposed the concept of the 'inferiority complex'?

Alfred Adler proposed this concept.

How did Erik Erikson’s view of personality development differ from Freud’s?

Erikson suggested that personality develops throughout the entire lifespan rather than being fixed in early childhood.

What is the 'collective unconscious' in Carl Jung’s analytical psychology?

A universal version of the personal unconscious that holds mental patterns, or memory traces, common to all humans.

Concept: Archetypes

Definition: Ancestral memories represented by universal themes and symbols, such as the hero or the sage, present in every culture.

How does Carl Jung define an 'introvert'?

An individual who derives their energy from inner psychic activity and may be quiet or reserved.

What is the purpose of the 'persona' according to Jung?

It is a social mask that acts as a compromise between an individual's true self and what society expects them to be.

Which theorist proposed the concept of 'womb envy' in response to Freud’s 'penis envy'?

Karen Horney proposed this concept.

What are the three styles of coping with basic anxiety identified by Karen Horney?

The three styles are moving toward people, moving against people, and moving away from people.

How do behaviorists like B. F. Skinner view the development of personality?

They view personality as significantly shaped by reinforcements and consequences in the environment rather than inborn traits.

Concept: Reciprocal Determinism

Definition: Albert Bandura's theory that cognitive processes, behavior, and situational context all interact and influence each other simultaneously.

In social-cognitive theory, what is 'self-efficacy'?

Our level of confidence in our own abilities to approach challenges and reach goals.

What is the difference between an 'internal' and 'external' locus of control?

An internal locus believes outcomes result from personal effort, while an external locus believes outcomes are controlled by luck or others.

What did Walter Mischel find regarding the consistency of personality traits across different situations?

He found that a person’s traits are not consistent across different situations, though behavior is more consistent within similar situations.

What did Mischel's 'marshmallow test' demonstrate about children who could delay gratification?

Those children were more successful in high school, having higher SAT scores and more stable marriages as adults.

How does humanism differ from psychoanalysis and behaviorism in its view of human nature?

It focuses on the innate capacity for self-directed change and the healthy development of individuals rather than dysfunction or environmental passivity.

What is 'self-actualization' in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

It is the achievement of an individual's fullest potential.

According to Carl Rogers, when does an individual experience 'congruence'?

When their thoughts about their real self and their ideal self are very similar.

What is 'unconditional positive regard'?

A state of total acceptance and love provided by parents or others that helps a child develop a healthy self-concept.

What were the key findings of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart?

Identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities, suggesting a high heritability of certain traits.

What are the two dimensions of temperament thought to be important parts of adult personality?

The dimensions are reactivity (response to stimuli) and self-regulation (control of that response).

How does Gordon Allport define a 'cardinal trait'?

A single trait that dominates an individual's entire personality and life, such as extreme greed or altruism.

How many personality factors did Raymond Cattell identify for his 16PF assessment?

He identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality.

Which three dimensions of personality did Hans and Sybil Eysenck focus on?

The dimensions are extroversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego control.

What are the five factors included in the 'Big Five' Five Factor Model?

The factors are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Which trait in the Five Factor Model is characterized by competence, self-discipline, and goal-directed behavior?

Conscientiousness is the factor characterized by these traits.

What additional trait is included in the HEXACO model that is not part of the Big Five?

The HEXACO model includes the trait of honesty-humility.

How do individualist cultures differ from collectivist cultures in their basic values?

Individualist cultures value independence and personal achievement, while collectivist cultures value social harmony and group needs.

Concept: Selective Migration

Definition: The concept that people choose to move to geographical places that are compatible with their specific personalities and needs.

What are 'self-report inventories' in personality assessment?

Objective tests that use multiple-choice items or Likert scales to assess personality traits.

What is the purpose of the 'Lie Scale' (L Scale) on the MMPI?

It is used to determine if a respondent is 'faking good' by underreporting psychological problems to appear healthier.

How do 'projective tests' assess personality?

They use ambiguous stimuli to encourage an individual to project their unconscious feelings, impulses, and desires.

Which projective test uses a series of symmetrical inkblot cards to reveal unconscious struggles?

The Rorschach Inkblot Test uses this method.

What is the format of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

A person is shown ambiguous pictures and asked to tell a story about each one to reveal their hopes and fears.

What does the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) measure?

It uses 40 incomplete sentences to reveal an individual's desires, fears, and struggles.

Why was the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB) developed?

To provide a culturally specific projective test that reflects the everyday life experiences of African Americans.

According to Galen, what are the characteristics of a 'phlegmatic' person?

A phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and thoughtful.

How does Freud define a 'Freudian slip'?

A slip of the tongue that accidentally reveals a sexual or aggressive urge from the unconscious mind.

What is the erogenous zone during Freud's oral stage (birth to 1 year)?

The mouth is the erogenous zone during this stage.

In Freudian theory, what leads to an 'anal-expulsive' personality?

Parents who are too lenient in toilet training, resulting in a child who is messy, disorganized, and prone to outbursts.

Which developmental stage did Erik Erikson associate with the age range of 12–18 years?

The stage of 'Identity vs. Confusion'.

How does Albert Bandura define 'observational learning'?

Learning that occurs by watching someone else’s behavior and observing the consequences of that behavior.

According to Rogers, what is the 'ideal self'?

The person that an individual would like to be.

What characterizes the 'Agreeableness' factor in the Five Factor Model?

The tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured.

What characterizes the 'Neuroticism' factor in the Five Factor Model?

The tendency to experience emotional instability and negative emotions such as anger and impulsivity.

How does the 'indigenous approach' to studying personality in a cultural context work?

It develops assessment instruments based on personality constructs relevant specifically to the culture being studied.

In the MMPI-2 clinical scales, what does 'psychasthenia' measure?

It measures obsessive and compulsive qualities.

Which personality theorist suggested that birth order significantly shapes our personality?

Alfred Adler proposed this idea.

In Jung's view, when does the process of 'self-realization' mainly occur?

It mainly occurs in the second half of life as individuals integrate unconscious elements into consciousness.

According to Horney, what describes the 'moving toward people' coping style?

A reliance on affiliation and dependence to receive attention and affection to relieve anxiety.

What did Thomas and Chess (1977) identify as the three types of infant temperament?

The three types are easy, difficult, and slow to warm up.

How many questions are in the updated MMPI-2-RF version published in 2008?

The MMPI-2-RF version contains 338 questions.

Which theory of personality explains both normal and abnormal behaviors as products of unconscious drives and childhood sexuality?

Freud's psychodynamic perspective was the first comprehensive theory to do this.