BETEC PE

unit 1

what dose the axial skeleton consist of?

. cranium

. thoracic cage (sternum + ribcage)

. vertebral column

what dose the appendicular skeleton consist of?

. upper limbs

. lower limbs

. the shoulder girdle

. pelvic girdle

what doses the vertebral column consist of with the amount of bones? (in order)

. cervical - 7

. thoracic - 12

. lumbar - 5

. sacrum - 5, fused

. coccyx - 4, fused

what are the functions of the vertebral column?

. protection of the spinal cord

. support of the ribcage

. support of bodyweight (mainly lumbar)

. muscle attachment (thoracic area)

. absorbs and distributes weight - reduces impact disc between vertebrae + muscles)

what is the kyphosis?

an overly curved thoracic region, often looking like a hunchback

what is scoliosis?

the abnormal curvature of the spine either left or right, usually occurring in the thoracic region

what are the type of bones?

. irregular

. flat

. long

. short

. sesamoid

what is the function of long bones?

movement

what is the function of short bones?

weight bearing

what is the function of irregular bones?

muscle attachment

what is the function of flat bones

protection of vital organs

what is the function of sesamoid bone?

. to enhance tendon leverage

. reduce friction

. protect tendons from stress and wear.

what is ossification?

the process of bone growth.

what are osteoblasts?

the cells that supply calcium to developing bones.

. stimulated through physical activity

what is the epiphyseal plate and what happens when maturated?

. the growing area at the end of every long bones

. when maturated the head fuses with a shaft to form an epiphyseal line

what are the functions of the skeleton?

. protection of vital organs

. attachment of skeletal muscles

. leverage

. storage of minerals

. red and white blood cell production

. support of framework

. weight bearing

. reduce friction across joints

what the 3 types of joints with their range of movements?

. fibrous - body fixed

. cartilaginous - slightly moveable

. synovial - freely moveable

define joint

a joint is where two or more bones meet

describe a fibrous joint

. they do not move - fixed

. formed in early childhood

. thick fibrous materials hold them together

.the bones interlock of overlaps

e.g. cranium

describe a cartilaginous joint

. have a small amount of movement - slightly moveable

. they have cartilage on the end of bones to stop friction + pads of cartilage between them to absorb shock

e.g. vertebrae

describe a synovial joint

. have a great amount of movement - freely moveable

. normally found in the appendicular area of the skeleton

e.g. limbs

what are the components of a synovial joint?

. joint capsule

. bursa

. articular cartilage

. synovial membrane

. synovial fluid

. ligaments

what is the function of the joint capsule?

holds bones in place and protects the joint

what is the function of the bursa?

a fluid filled sacks that provides cushioning between tendons and bones

what is the function of the articular cartilage?

covers the ends of the bones to stop friction

what is the function of the synovial membrane?

a capsule lining that release synovial fluid

what is the function of the synovial fluid?

a thick fluid which stops bones rubbing together + provides nutrients to the cartilage

what is the function of the ligaments?

hold bones together and keeps them in place.

what are the 12 range of movements at a joint?

. flexion

. extension

. dorsiflexion

. plantarflexion

. lateral flexion

. horizonal flexion

. hyperextension

. adduction

. horizonal abduction

. adduction

. circumduction

. rotation

what are 5 short term response to exercise?

. increased in synovial fluid

. fluid becomes less viscous

. increased flexibility at the joint

. increase nutrients to cartilages (due to the increased in fluid)

. increase in strength and density of the bones

(as in weight bearing activities the bones absorb more minerals like calcium)

what are some long term response to exercise?

. stronger and denser bones

. the strengthening of the ligaments, which attach the bones together

. increased flexibility in the joint

what is arthritis (osteoarthritis)?

it is the general wear and tear within the joint

- which over time it can become inflamed, stiff and painful. it causes the wear away of cartilage that covers to end of the bones, leading to the bones rubbing together.

what is osteoporosis?

Also know as brittle bones - caused by the lack of vitamin D and calcium

= over time the bones become weaker and become more at risk of breaking under stress

what are some characteristics of the skeletal striated muscles?

. voluntary - meaning they are under conscious control

. primarily responsible for movement

. they can fatigue

what are some characteristics of cardiac muscles?

. involuntary

. dose not fatigue/ tire

. has its own blood supply

what are some characteristics of smooth muscles?

. involuntary

. found in the digestive systems and blood vessels

. controlled by the nervous system

what can muscles only do?

pull

what is are antagonistic muscle pairs?

when one muscle pulls and the other muscle relaxes

what is the role of synergists role in the antagonistic muscle pair movements?

muscles that work together to make muscles contraction smoother and more efficient

what is the role of the fixators in the antagonistic muscle pair movement?

muscles that stop unwanted movement throughout the body, these contract isometrically

what is the role of the agonist?

it is the prime mover in the pair, this muscles contracts to cause the movement.

what is the role of the antagonist?

the muscles the relaxes to allow the movement to occur.

what are the 3 types of muscle contraction?

. isometric

. concentric

. eccentric

what happens during the isometric muscle contraction?

. the muscle length dose not change

. the joint angle dose not change

. this type of contraction cause fatigue quickly

what happens during the eccentric muscle contraction?

. muscle returns to normal length after shortening against a resistance

(can often be referred to the negative phase of muscle contraction)

what happens during the concentric muscle contraction?

. muscle fibres shorten and contract

(sometimes known as the positive phase of muscle contraction)

what are all muscle made of?

a collection of fibres

what are the two main categories muscle fall into?

speed and contraction

what are the two fibre types

. type 1 - slow twitch

. type 2 - fast twitch

what are the 3 types of muscle fibres?

. type 1 - slow twitch

. type 2a/IIA - fast oxidative

. type 2b/IIX - fast glycolytic

what are the characteristics of the muscles fibre type 1

. contraction time = slow

. oxidative capacity = high

. diameter = small

. resistance to fatigue = high

. generating force = small

what are the characteristics of the muscle fibre of type 2a/ IIA?

. contraction time = fast

. oxidative capacity = high

. diameter = medium

. resistance to fatigue = moderate

. generating force = moderate

what are the characteristics of the muscle fibre of type 2a/ IIA?

. contraction time = fast

. oxidative capacity = high

. diameter = medium

. resistance to fatigue = moderate

. generating force = moderate

what are the characteristics of the muscle fibre of type 2b / IIX?

contraction time = very fast

. oxidative capacity = low

. diameter = large

. resistance to fatigue = small

. generating force = very high

What are some short term responses on muscles to exercise?

. Increased blood supply

. Increased muscle temperature

. Increased muscle pliability

. Lactate (lactic acid)

. Micro tears

. DOMS

What are some of the adaptations of the muscular system to prolonged training?

. Hypertrophy (muscles become larger and stronger)

. Increased tendon strength (increased thickness, flexibility)

. Increase in size and number of mitochondria

. Increase in myoglobin stones (myoglobin is how 02 is stored in the muscles)

. Increased storage of glycogen

. Increase storage of fat

. Increased tolerance to lactate

What are some additional factors affecting the muscles?

. Age = the older someone gets the more muscle mass they lose, starts at age 50

. Cramp = a sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles, caused by dehydration

What is the structure in the throat in order?

Pharynx - epiglottis - larynx - trachea

Explain gaseous exchange:

. Takes place in the alveoli

. Occurs between oxygen and carbon dioxide

. Uses diffusion - movement from high to low concentration

. Attaches to haemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin)

What happens during inspiration?

. Diaphragm contracts and flattens downwards

. External intercostal muscles contract

. Rib cages moves up and out

What happens during expiration?

. Diaphragm relaxes

. External intercostal muscles contract

. Ribs moves downwards and inwards

What are some examples of receptors?

. Chemoreceptors

. Baroreceptors

. Proprioceptors

What dose the chemoreceptor do?

it detects the changes in chemical e.g. the acidity of the blood

What dose the baroreceptors do?

It detects changes in pressure in the arteries

What does the proprioceptors do?

It detects change in movement

What controls the breathing - neural?

Breathing is controlled by the respiratory centre and the medulla oblongata and is generally involuntary

What controls the breathing - chemical?

. Chemoreceptor detect oxygen levels in blood (mainly through PH) , they are located in the medulla oblongata, aortic arch and carotid arteries. They send impulses to the medulla oblongata to change breathing.

What is the tidal volume?

The volume of air breathed in and out in one breath

What dose the residual volume?

The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal expiration

What is the residual volume?

The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal expiration

What is the vital capacity?

The volume of air that can be forced out of the lungs after maximal inspiration

What is the expiratory reserve volume?

The additional air that can be breathed out after normal expiration

What is the inspiratory reserve volume?

The additional air that can be breathed in after a normal inspiration

What is the total lung capacity?

The total lung capacity after you have inhaled as deeply and as much as possible

What is the minute ventilation?

The volume of air passing through the lungs each minute

What are some short term responses for the respiratory system to exercise?

. Increased breathing rate

. Increased tidal volume

What are some adaptations of the respiratory system to exercise?

. Increased vital capacity

. Increased strength of respiratory muscles = chest can expand more

. Increased in diffusion rates

What are some factors affecting the respiratory system?

. Asthma

What is asthma?

It’s a condition where the airways can become restricted through inflammation causing wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing.

What is a positive of altitude training?

. The creation of more red blood cells

. The lungs become larger and you produce more capillaries

What is a negative of altitude training?

. Altitude sickness

. Shortness of breath

. Sickness and dizziness

What are some features of the arteries?

. Small lumen

. High blood pressure

. Oxygenated blood

. Thick muscular walls

. It’s function is take oxygenated blood to the body away from the heart

What are some features of the capillaries?

. Small lumen

. Low blood pressure

. 1 cell thick walls

. It’s function is to deliver oxygen to tissues that need it

What are some features of the vein?

. Large lumen

. Low blood pressure

. Deoxygenated blood

. No stretch in the wall

. Has valves

. It’s function is to carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart

What is the composition of the blood?

. Plasma = 55%

. Red blood cells = 40 - 45%

. White blood cells = 1%

. Platelets = 1%

What is the function of the red blood cells?

To carry 02 to the tissues, has haemoglobin (red pigment) which allows oxygen to attach to it

What is plasma made up of?

It made up from 90% water. With the following 10% being made up from dissolved CO2 electrolytes such as potassium and sodium.

What is the function of the white blood cells?

To fight infection, and they are formed in the bones marrow

What are the function of the platelets?

The prevent blood loss through clotting, and they are made up from disc shaped cell fragments (RBC fragements) and come from the bone marrow.

What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?

. Delivery of O2 and nutrients

. Removal of waste products

. Thermoregulation

. Fighting infection

. Clotting blood

What is thermoregulation?

= it is where the CV system helps distribute heat, either to help the body warm up or cool down

What are the two types of thermoregulation?

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation

What is vasoconstriction?

It is used in the process of heating up the body

. It occurs in the arteries when heat is needed to be conserved, it happen by the arteries constricting and blood vessels move away from the surface of the skin

What is vasodilation?

It used in the process of cooling down the body

. It occurs in areas where the oxygen demand is high, usually during exercise, it also occurs in the vessels near the skin to help increase the loss of heat.

What are the three main components in the cardiac conduction system?

. Sinoatrial node (SA)

. Artioventricualr node (AV)

. Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres

What dose the SA (sinoatrial node) do?

It sends out an impulse from the right atria, through the alls of the atria, causing the atria to contract and push the blood out the atria to the ventricles.

What dose the AV (atrioventricular node) do?

It receives the signal from the SA node, and it is delays the signal for about 0.1 of a second which than allows the ventricles to fill. The signal than passes this signal to the bundle of His

What dose the purkinji fibres do

The impulse than travels to the purkinji fibres from the bundle of his, which the purkinji fibres than cause the ventricles to contract.

What system that is responsible for controlling heat rate?

The nervous system

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

It speeds up the heart rate, in response to a greater need for oxygen (fight or flight)