cram packet (copy)

behavior

The study of the mind and actions of individuals.

structuralism

used introspection and the underlying structure of the mind.

functionalism

need to analyze the purpose of behavior

psychoanalytic/dynamic

unconscious childhood .

behavioral

learned and reinforced.

Humanistic psychology

Emphasizes free will, choice, and self-actualization.

cognitive psychology

Studies perception and thought processes.

evolutionary psychology

Investigates the impact of genetics on behavior.

biological psychology

Explores the relationship between the brain and neurotransmitters.

sociocultural psychology

Examines the influence of society and culture on behavior.

biopsychosocial approach

Combines biological, psychological, and social factors.

basic research

Aims to increase knowledge without immediate application.

applied research

Seeks to solve practical problems and help people.

psychologist

research or provides counseling, typically with a Master's or PhD.

psychiatrist

A medical doctor who can prescribe medications and diagnose mental health conditions.

experiment

A study designed to test cause and effect.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the special treatment.

control group

The group that does not receive any special treatment.

placebo effect

A phenomenon where subjects believe they are improving due to their expectations.

dependent variable

The outcome measure that is observed in an experiment.

double blind

An experimental procedure in which both participants and researchers are unaware of conditions.

single blind

A method where only the participants do not know their group assignment.

operational definition

Defines variables in clear, measurable terms.

random assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups to reduce bias.

random sample

A sample where every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

correlation

The relationship between two variables.

positive correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

negative correlation

A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases.

no correlation

Indicates no relationship between two variables.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship that does not actually exist.

naturalistic observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment.

case study

An in-depth study of a single individual or group.

ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA)

Standards set by the APA to ensure ethical treatment of research participants.

dendrites

Structures that receive incoming signals from other neurons.

soma

The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus.

axon

The fiber through which a neural impulse travels.

myelin sheath

A protective covering that speeds up neural impulses.

synapse

The gap between two neurons.

central nervous system

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system

Includes all nerves outside the central nervous system.

sympathetic nervous system

Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.

parasympathetic nervous system

Controls 'rest and digest' activities.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal excitability.

glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in cognition.

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward and movement.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood and emotions.

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter essential for memory and learning.

endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act to control pain.

oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding and relationships.

agonist

A substance that mimics the effects of neurotransmitters.

antagonist

A substance that blocks or reduces the effects of neurotransmitters.

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness.

Freud's dreaming theory

Suggests that dreams are a manifestation of unconscious desires.

depressants

Substances like alcohol that lower brain activity.

stimulants

Substances like caffeine and cocaine that increase brain activity.

hallucinogens

Substances that alter perception and create hallucinations.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus intensity that can be detected.

difference threshold

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

signal detection

The ability to discern between informative signals and random noise.

sensory adaptation

The decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus.

sensory habituation

A form of learning where an organism stops responding to a repeated stimulus.

cornea

The transparent layer that protects the eye.

rods

Photoreceptors that detect black, white, and dim light.

pupil/iris

Controls the amount of light that enters the eye.

lens

Focuses light onto the retina.

retina

The light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye.

cones

Photoreceptors responsible for color vision.

top-down processing

Interpreting information based on prior knowledge.

bottom-up processing

Building perception from the smallest pieces of sensory information.

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

unconditioned response

An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus.

neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response.

extinction

The reduction of a conditioned response when reinforcement is no longer provided.

spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

gestalt psychology

A field of psychology that views perceptions as wholes rather than parts.

figure-ground

The distinction between an object and its background.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is controlled by consequences.

positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behavior.

negative punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

primary reinforcers

Inherently rewarding stimuli, such as food and water.

secondary reinforcers

Learned reinforcers that acquire value through association.

shaping

Gradually guiding behavior towards a desired goal.

continuous reinforcement schedule

Rewarding the desired behavior every time it occurs.

fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses.

variable interval schedule

Reinforcement given after varying amounts of time.

modeling behavior

Children learn behaviors by observing and imitating others.

chunking

Breaking information into smaller units to aid memory.

mnemonics

Memory aids that facilitate recall.

context-dependent memory

Improved recall of specific information when the context matches the context of learning.

state-dependent memory

Improved recall when in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed.

information processing model

Describes how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

sensory memory

The initial, brief storage of sensory information.

iconic memory

A brief visual memory that lasts only a few seconds.

echoic memory

A brief auditory memory that lasts a few seconds.

short-term memory

Holds information for a limited duration, typically around 20 seconds.

long-term memory

A vast storage system that can hold information indefinitely.