Comprehensive Sociology Key Concepts and Theories for Students

Sociology

The systematic study of human society and social interaction

Sociological imagination

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society

Auguste Comte

The 'father of sociology' who advocated for positivism and the scientific study of society

Emile Durkheim

Known for his work on social facts, social solidarity, and his landmark study on suicide

Karl Marx

Focused on class conflict and the struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers)

Bourgeoisie

The ruling class in a capitalist society who own the means of production

Proletariat

The working class who sell their labor to the bourgeoisie to survive

Max Weber

Known for his focus on 'Verstehen' (understanding), bureaucracy, and the Protestant Ethic

Symbolic interactionism

A micro-level theory focused on how individuals create meaning through shared symbols and interactions

Functionalism

A macro-level theory viewing society as a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability

Manifest functions

The intended and recognized consequences of a social process or institution

Latent functions

The unintended and often unrecognized consequences of a social process or institution

Conflict Theory

A theory viewing society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change

Microsociology

Analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction in small-scale settings

Macrosociology

Analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social institutions and systems

Culture

The knowledge, values, customs, and material objects passed from one generation to the next in a group

Material culture

Physical creations (tools, clothing, architecture) that members of a society make and use

Nonmaterial culture

Abstract human creations, such as values, beliefs, and language, that influence behavior

Cultural universals

Customs and practices, such as language or funeral rites, that occur in all known societies

Socialization

The lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and social skills

Agents of socialization

The groups or institutions (family, school, peers, media) that teach us how to participate in society

In-group

A group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity

Out-group

A group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel competitiveness

Primary group

A small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over time

Secondary group

A larger, specialized group in which members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships

Reference group

A group that serves as a point of comparison for an individual in the formation of their attitudes and behavior

Hidden curriculum

The informal teaching of non-academic knowledge, such as obedience and competition, in schools

Church

A large, bureaucratically organized religious body that is well-integrated into the larger society

Sect

A relatively small religious group that has broken away from another organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith

Cult

A religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society

Food desert

An area, typically in low-income neighborhoods, where residents have limited access to affordable, nutritious food

Sick role theory

A functionalist concept describing the social expectations for the behavior of those who are ill

Illness work

Activities involved in managing a condition, such as taking medications or diagnostic tests

Biographical work

The process of incorporating an illness into one's self-identity and life story

Everyday life work

The management of daily tasks (household, employment) while living with a chronic illness

Urbanization

The process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than rural areas

Conurbation

A continuous network of urban areas formed by the growth of several cities and towns into one another

Megalopolis

A vast urban region containing a number of conurbations (e.g., the Northeast corridor of the U.S.)

Jane Jacobs

Social theorist known for the 'Eyes and Ears Upon the Street' concept regarding neighborhood safety

Gentrification

The process of renovating and improving a house or district so that it conforms to middle-class taste

Global city

A city that serves as a primary hub in the global economic system, such as New York or London

Demography

The scientific study of population characteristics, including births, deaths, and migration

Globalization

The increased economic, political, and social interconnectedness of the world

Social movement

An organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist social change through collective action