AP Psychology Memory

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images.

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units in STM because space is limited to 7 bits. This increasing the efficiency of STM.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

implicit memory

memory that is not easily explained/transferred through words (non-declarative)

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Consolidation

The process of the brain forming a LTM

episodic memory

Explicit memories that have a time and a place.

procedural memory

Implicit memories (retrieved unconsciously) which involved motor skills; for example; riding a bike, typing, and tying a shoe.

Curve of forgetting

Indicates LTM decay over time. Rapid decay occurs within the first 20 minutes and then memory decay slows down to 20-30% over 30 days.

Selective Attention

Transferring sensory memory into STM.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information with memories already stored in LTM.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating new information over and over to strengthen LTM.

Deep processing

Similar to elaboratiave rehearsal; connecting semantics of a new word to LTM which builds a strong memory trace that is resistant to memory decay.

Shallow Processing

Phonetic memory building which leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. (Focusing on how to say the word).

cerebellum

Brain part that stores implicit memories.

Engrams

Karl Lashley searched the brain for specific memory traces. Never found them

frontal lobe

part of the brain that assists with working memory and problem solving.

basal ganglia

part of the brain that helps create and store procedural memories.

state-dependent memory

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same.

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

George Sperling

Psychologist associated with early research into the capacity of sensory memory.

George Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

decay theory

the view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

parallel distributed processing (PDP)

a model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel

ESR memory model

Memories are made through encoding, storage, retrieval

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory (sensory, short term, long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

levels of processing model

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

implanted memories

Using power of suggestion to create memories for events that did not occur

sleeper effect

a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world (fact memories)

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

phonological loop

A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it

prospective memory

remembering to do something at some future time

retrospective memory

involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information

Amygdala (memory storage)

emotional memories

digit span

The longest sequence of random digits that can be repeated correctly 50% of the time- most people have a digit span of 7

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

eidetic memory

the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

focused attention

Attending to a particular stimulus while ignoring others; it requires a high level of awareness. (helps put things in STM)

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

interference theory of forgetting

the theory that forgetting is caused by other memories impairing the retention or retrieval of the target memory.

learning curve

a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning

memory cues

prompts that promote remembering certain items

memory reconstruction

Approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it

memory span

the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials

memory traces are

Familiar mental loop in which neurons fire and are wired in memory.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

The memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing. (Atkinson Shiffrin)

negative transfer

mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another

Overlearning

A strategy whereby the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been initially brought to mastery. (has positive impacts)

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

positive transfer

mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

Pseudo-memories

false memories that a person believes are true or accurate

savings score

difference between the time or trials originally required to learn material and the time or trials required to relearn the material; also known as relearning score

Suppression

Consciously and intentionally pushing unpleasant feelings out of one's mind