AP Gov Midterm Study Guide

Declaration of Independence

A 1776 document explaining why the colonies were breaking away from Britain, based on natural rights and the idea that people can overthrow unjust governments

Articles of Confederation

America’s first government (1781–1789). Created a weak national government with almost all power in the states

Federalist No. 10

Madison argues that factions are inevitable but can be controlled by a large republic

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist writing that warns the Constitution creates a too-powerful national government that will destroy state power

Federalist No. 51

Madison explains how separation of powers and checks and balances prevent tyranny

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton argues the U.S. needs a strong, single executive (president) for energy, leadership, and accountability

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton explains judicial review and why the courts need independence and life tenure

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

established judicial review by ruling that the Supreme Court has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

ruled that Congress could create a national bank using implied powers and that states could not tax federal institutions because of the Supremacy Clause

Baker v. Carr (1962)

allowed federal courts to hear redistricting cases and established the “one person, one vote” rule under the Equal Protection Clause

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional when race is the primary factor in drawing district lines

United States v. Lopez (1995)

limited federal power by ruling that Congress could not use the Commerce Clause to ban guns in school zones

Natural Rights

basic rights people are born with—like life, liberty, and property—that the government must protect

Social Contract

an agreement where people give some freedom to the government in exchange for protection of their rights

Popular Sovereignty

the people are the ultimate source of government power

Republicanism

belief that citizens elect representatives to make laws for them

Participatory democracy

emphasizes broad, direct involvement of citizens in political decisions

Pluralist democracy

argues that politics is shaped by groups competing to influence government

Elite democracy

believes that a small group of powerful people make most political decisions

The U.S. Constitution

the plan for the U.S. government that sets up structure, powers, and limits

Great Compromise

created a bicameral Congress with the House based on population and the Senate based on equal representation

Electoral College

the system that elects the president through state-chosen electors

3/5 Compromise

counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation

Compromise on importation of slaes (1808)

allowed the slave trade to continue until 1808, after which Congress could ban it

Amendment process

allows the Constitution to be changed through proposal and ratification

Federalists

supported the Constitution and a stronger national government

Anti-federalists

opposed the Constitution because they feared a powerful national government

Separation of powers

divides government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches

Checks and Balances

allows each branch to limit the others so no branch becomes too powerful

Federalism

divides power between the national and state governments

Exclusive powers

powers only the national government can use, like declaring war

Concurrent powers

powers shared by both national and state governments, like taxation

Reserved powers

powers kept by the states under the Tenth Amendment

Implied powers

powers not written directly in the Constitution but allowed by the Necessary and Proper Clause

Necessary and Proper Clause

allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its listed powers

Tenth Amendment

powers not given to the federal government go to the states or the people

Supremacy Clause

makes the Constitution and federal laws higher than state laws

Categorical grants

federal funds given to states for specific purposes with strict rules

Block grants

federal funds given to states with fewer restrictions and more flexibility

Mandates

orders from the federal government that states must follow, sometimes without funding

Commerce Clause

gives Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign trade

John Locke

argued for natural rights and the idea that government must protect them

Thomas Hobbes

believed people need a strong government to keep order because humans are naturally selfish

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

argued that citizens should make the laws directly and that government must follow the general will

Montesquieu

introduced the idea of separation of powers to prevent tyranny

Thomas Jefferson

wrote the Declaration of Independence and supported limited government and states’ rights

James Madison

helped write the Constitution and defended it in the Federalist Papers

Alexander Hamilton

supported a strong national government and wrote many Federalist Papers

Constitutional Convention

the 1787 meeting where delegates wrote the U.S. Constitution

Virginia Plan

proposed a Congress based on population

New Jersey Plan

proposed a Congress with equal representation for each state

Bill of Rights

the first ten amendments that protect individual freedoms

Direct democracy

when people vote directly on laws

Representative democracy

when people elect leaders to make decisions for them

Stakeholders

individuals or groups affected by government policies

Impeachment

the process where the House charges a federal official and the Senate holds a trial to remove them

Full Faith and Credit Clause

requires states to honor other states’ laws and legal decisions

Due Process Clause

says the government must follow fair procedures before taking life, liberty, or property

Equal Protection Clause

requires states to treat people equally under the law

Revenue Sharing

allows the federal government to give states money with few or no restrictions

Political culture

the shared beliefs about government in a society

Majority rule vs. minority rights

Majority rule means most people decide, but minority rights must still be protected

Popular consent

means government gets authority because the people agree to be governed

Legitimacy

means people accept a government’s authority as rightful

Faction

a group of people with shared interests that may oppose the common good

Compromise

when different sides give up something to reach an agreement

Ratification

the approval process needed to formally adopt the Constitution or amendments

Federal Balance of Power

refers to how authority is divided between national and state governments

State Sovereignty

the idea that states have independent powers protected from federal control

Articles I, II, and III

Articles I, II, and III create the legislative, executive, and judicial branches and outline their powers

Judicial independence

means judges are free from political pressure so they can make fair decisions

Separation of church and state

means government should not establish or interfere with religion

Bicameral legislature

a lawmaking body with two chambers—in the U.S., the House of Representatives and the Senate

Enumerated powers

specific powers listed in the Constitution that belong to Congress

Implied powers

powers not directly listed but allowed because they are necessary to carry out enumerated powers

House of Representatives

the larger chamber of Congress where representation is based on state population and members serve two-year terms

Senate

the smaller chamber where each state gets two senators who serve six-year terms

Delegate model

representatives vote the way their constituents want

Trustee model

representatives vote based on their own judgment

Politico model

combines both delegate and trustee approaches depending on the situation

Pork barrel legislation

funds local projects to help a representative’s district and improve their chances of reelection

Logrolling

when lawmakers trade votes to help each other pass bills

Advice and consent

the Senate’s power to approve treaties and presidential appointments

Treaty ratification

occurs when the Senate approves a treaty with a two-thirds vote

Confirmation of nominees

the Senate’s process of approving presidential appointees like judges and cabinet members

Power of the purse

means Congress controls federal spending and taxation

Revenue bills

raise money through taxes, must start in the House of Representatives

Speaker of the House

the leader of the House and sets the legislative agenda

Majority leader

the main leader of the majority party in each chamber who helps plan strategy and guide bills

Minority leader

represents the minority party and organizes opposition to the majority party

Whips

party leaders who count votes and encourage members to vote with the party

President of the Senate

serves as President of the Senate and can cast tie-breaking votes

President pro tempore

the senior member of the majority party who leads the Senate when the vice president is absent

Committee system

divides Congress into groups that specialize in different policy areas

Standing committees

permanent committees that handle ongoing issues and bills

Select committees

temporary committees formed for specific investigations or issues

Conference committees

resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill

Committee chair

senior members of the majority party who lead committees and influence legislation

Rules committee

sets debate rules in the House, including how long bills are discussed and whether amendments are allowed

Committee of the Whole

allows the entire House to debate bills faster and more informally