Psychological explanation: Cognitive explanations

What is Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory?

a theory of offending which suggests that criminals tend to show lower levels of moral reasoning (i.e they can’t rely on their own values to decide whether an action is right or wrong)

What is moral reasoning?

The process of evaluating values and beliefs before deciding whether an action is right or wrong

What method did Kohlberg use to assess moral reasoning?

Responses to moral dilemmas, such as the Heinz dilemma

How do criminals typically differ from non‑criminals in moral reasoning?

criminals tend to show lower levels of moral reasoning

Why might low moral reasoning contribute to criminal behaviour?

Because offenders struggle to rely on internal values to judge right from wrong

What did Kohlberg (1973) find about violent youths?

They were significantly lower in moral development than non‑violent youths

What are the levels of Kohlberg’s theory?

1. pre-conventional morality (stage 1 and 2)

2. conventional morality (stage 3 and 4)

3. post-conventional morality (stage 5 and 6)

What characterises Level I (Pre‑conventional morality)?

Moral decisions are based on personal consequences, not societal rules

What is Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Punishment orientation - rules are obeyed to avoid punishment

What is Stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Personal gain - rules are obeyed for personal benefit

What characterises Level II (Conventional morality)?

Moral decisions are based on social approval and maintaining order

What is Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Good boy/girl orientation - rules are obeyed to gain approval

What is Stage 4 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Maintaining social order - rules are obeyed to keep society functioning

What characterises Level III (Post‑conventional morality)?

Moral decisions are based on ethical principles beyond societal rules

What is Stage 5 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Morality of contract and individual rights - rules are followed if fair; unfair rules can be challenged.

What is Stage 6 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Morality of conscience - decisions follow personal ethical principles

Which level of moral reasoning are offenders most likely to be at?

The pre‑conventional level

What motivates moral decisions at the pre‑conventional level?

Avoiding punishment and gaining rewards

Which study supports the link between low moral reasoning and offending?

Chandler (1973) - offenders were more self‑centred than non‑offenders

What are cognitive distortions?

Errors or biases in information processing that lead offenders to misinterpret others’ behaviour and justify their own actions

How might cognitive distortions influence criminal behaviour?

Offenders may perceive situations inaccurately, misread others’ intentions, and rationalise their own aggression or wrongdoing

Define hostile attribution bias.

The tendency to interpret ambiguous behaviour as aggressive or confrontational, even when it isn’t

What did Schoenenberg & Juste (2014) find?

55 violent offenders were more likely to perceive emotionally ambiguous faces as angry and hostile compared to non‑violent individuals

What did Dodge & Frame (1982) discover about children’s interpretations?

Aggressive children were more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviour as deliberate and hostile rather than accidental from a video clip

What is minimalisation?

A cognitive distortion where offenders deny or downplay the seriousness of their offence

Why might offenders minimise their crimes?

To rationalise their behaviour and reduce feelings of guilt or responsibility

What did Barbaree (1991) find about rapists’ use of denial and minimilasitation?

54% denied committing an offence at all

40% minimised the harm to the victim

What did Pollock & Hashmall (1991) find about child molesters’ explanations?

35% claimed the offence was non‑sexual (“just being affectionate”)

36% claimed the victim had consented even though children can’t legally consent

How is the fact that Kohlberg’s theory has real‑world application in rehabilitation programmes, showing practical value beyond theoretical explanation a strength (+counter/development)?

because it demonstrates that understanding moral development can lead to effective, evidence‑based strategies for reducing crime.

C: the effectiveness of these programmes is mixed, and not all offenders respond to cognitive interventions. This suggests that moral reasoning is only one factor influencing criminal behaviour, limiting the extent to which Kohlberg’s theory alone can explain or prevent offending

Give an example of this strength

for example, if offending behaviour stems from immature moral reasoning, then interventions that help offenders progress to higher stages should reduce reoffending. This idea underpins cognitive skills programmes such as Reasoning and Rehabilitation (R&R), which train offenders to consider others’ perspectives, evaluate consequences, and make decisions based on moral principles rather than personal gain. Research shows that structured moral‑reasoning training can improve offenders’ decision‑making and, in some cases, lower recidivism rates, supporting Kohlberg’s theory.

How is the fact that Kohlberg’s theory is culturally biased a significant limitation?

because it limits the usefulness of the theory in terms of it being generalised to to other cultures (the theory is culture bound)

Give an example of this limitation?

for instance, the ‘post-conventional’ level emphasises individual rights and personal moral principles which are deeply rooted in western individualistic cultures. His theory was developed based on findings from an American population. Collectivist cultures are often found in the ‘conventional stage’ due to their emphasis on group cohesion

How is the fact that cognitive explanations have clear real‑world application in offender rehabilitation, giving the approach strong practical value a strength?

because it demonstrates that understanding cognitive distortions leads to effective, evidence‑based rehabilitation strategies. The ability to translate theory into successful interventions strengthens the credibility of cognitive explanations and shows their meaningful contribution to forensic psychology

Give an example of this strength

for example, if distorted thinking patterns contribute to criminal behaviour, then interventions can be designed to identify, challenge, and correct these biases. This underpins programmes such as Reasoning and Rehabilitation (R&R) and Enhanced Thinking Skills (ETS), which train offenders to take responsibility, reduce denial, challenge victim‑blaming, and consider the consequences of their actions. Anger‑management programmes also target hostile attribution bias, helping offenders reinterpret ambiguous cues more accurately. Evidence shows these interventions can improve cognitive skills and, in many cases, reduce reoffending, supporting the cognitive explanation.

How is the fact that cognitive explanations are less deterministic than other explanations such as genetic/neural a key strength?

as it could lead to a reduction in self-fulfilling prophecy for crime, reducing the number of criminals and keeping society safer

Give an example of this key strength

for example, if crime is as a result of faulty thinking processes, this is much easier ‘fixed’ than genetic and/or neural explanations, which both argue that crime is caused by things we can’t control?