History unit 4 test

King Henry VIII

the English monarch who initiated the English Reformation by breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church of England. His connection to the church as a monarch caused consolidation of royal power, setting the stage for future constitutional conflicts.

Catherine of Aragon

the first wife of Henry VIII and a Spanish princess. Her inability to produce a male heir led Henry to challenge papal authority, permanently changing the relationship between the English monarchy and the Vatican.

Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn was the second wife of Henry VIII and the mother of Elizabeth I, whose marriage to the King necessitated the break from Rome which was a start to the English reformation

Mary I

known as 'Bloody Mary,' was the daughter of Henry VIII who attempted to restore Roman Catholicism to England through the persecution of Protestants. Her reign solidified anti-Catholic sentiment among the English population.

Elizabeth I

a long-reigning monarch who created a moderate Protestant Church of England. Her reign is considered a 'Golden Age' that fostered English cultural growth and strengthened English influence abroad.

James I

the first Stuart king of England who advocated for the 'Divine Right of Kings,' He was important because he commissioned the translation of the King James Bible and increased tensions between the monarchy and the Puritan movement.

John Calvin

a French theologian whose teachings on church governance influenced the Puritan movement in England. His ideas provided a theological framework for challenging absolute monarchy.

Charles I

an English monarch whose belief in absolute power and conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War. His execution showed that a monarch could be held accountable by the law and the people.

Cavaliers

the supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War who favored the monarchy. Their defeat by the Parliamentarians signaled the decline of absolute royal authority and the rise of parliamentary influence in governance.

Roundheads

the supporters of the Parliament during the English Civil War, they mainly consisted of Puritans and those against the King's absolute power. Their victory led to the temporary abolition of the monarchy

Oliver Cromwell

The military leader of the Parliament forces who because the Lord Protector Commonwealth. Important because His rule had strict Puritan morality and military governance, leaving a lasting impact on the development of the English constitution

Charles II

the monarch restored to the throne beginning the Restoration era. His reign saw the stabilization of the monarchy.

William and Mary

the monarchs accepted the English Bill of Rights. Their reign established a constitutional monarchy, where their power is limited by law and parliamentary consent.

King James Bible

an English translation of the Christian Bible commissioned by James I. it further influenced the English language, literature, and the spread of Protestant values.

Daemonology

a written work on witchcraf by King James I talking about his belief in the supernatural and the dangers of dark magic. It justifying the persecution of 'witches'.

Church of England

the state church established by Henry VIII, which combined Catholic structure with Protestant theology. It became a major part of English national identity and a primary source of political and religious conflict.

Puritans

a group of English Protestants who sought to 'purify' the Church of England of all Roman Catholic practices. Their influence was central to the English Civil War and the development of democratic ideals, as they emphasized individual reading of the Bible and moral discipline.

The Petition of Rights 1628

a major constitutional document that set out specific liberties that the king is prohibited from infringing. It is important for limiting the power of the monarchy and establishing the principle that the king is subject to the law.

English Bill of Rights

an act passed that limited the powers of the monarchy and set out the rights of Parliament. It is a foundational document for modern democracy, ensuring regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech within the legislature.

English Civil War

a series of conflicts between Parliamentarians and Royalists that resulted in the execution of Charles I and the temporary end of the monarchy. It was a turning point that shifted England toward a constitutional system and limited royal power.

The Restoration

the return of the monarchy to England under Charles II after the collapse of the Commonwealth. It marked a return to traditional government structures while maintaining the precedent that the monarch must work with Parliament.

Glorious Revolution

the overthrow of King James II in 1688, leading to the rule of William and Mary. It is significant for putting the Parliament over the monarchy and establishing the foundations of a constitutional government.

Thomas Hobbes

an English philosopher who wrote 'Leviathan,' arguing that humans are naturally selfish and require an absolute ruler to maintain order. His work brought relevance to the social contract theory and the debate over the necessity of strong central authority.

John Locke

an Enlightenment philosopher who argued that all people possess natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. His ideas heavily influenced the American and French Revolutions, as he proposed that government exists only to protect these rights and can be overthrown if it fails.

Copernicus

an astronomer who suggested heliocentric model meaning that the Earth revolves around the Sun. His work sparked the Scientific Revolution by challenging the geocentric view held by the Church

Galileo

a scientist who used the telescope to provide evidence for the heliocentric model. this furthered tension between science and religious set beliefs during the early modern period.

Isaac Newton

a physicist and mathematician who formulated the laws of motion and gravity. He provided a mathematical framework for understanding the universe, effectively completing the Scientific Revolution and influencing the Age of Reason.

Adam Smith

an economist who wrote 'The Wealth of Nations,' advocating for free-market capitalism His ideas became the foundation of modern economic theory and challenged policies of the time.

Age of Reason

an intellectual movement that emphasized logic, science, and individual rights over tradition and religious authority. It transformed Western society by promoting secularism, democracy, and the scientific method.

On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres

This book by Copernicus presented the first mathematical argument for the heliocentric model of the universe. It is considered the starting point of the Scientific Revolution, as it fundamentally changed humanity's understanding of science

heliocentric model

the astronomical theory that the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the solar system. This model replaced the geocentric view and was essential for the development of modern physics and astronomy.

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

This work by Isaac Newton laid out the laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing a unified explanation for physical phenomena and established the basis for classical mechanics.

Royal Society

an English learned society for science, founded to promote experimental philosophy and the exchange of scientific ideas. It played a crucial role in the development of the scientific method and the professionalization of scientific research.

Academy of Sciences

a French institution established to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It served as a model for scientific collaboration and helped advance knowledge in mathematics, physics, and natural history during the Enlightenment.

The Wealth of Nations

This book by Adam Smith analyzed wealth arguing for free trade and the division of labor. It is a major text of classical economics and remains a primary influence on modern economic policy.

Second Treatise of Government

Written by John Locke, this work argues that government is a social contract created to protect natural rights. It provided the intellectual justification for the American Revolution and the concept of popular sovereignty.

George Mason

an American statesman who authored the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which served as a model for the U.S. Bill of Rights. His work was instrumental in ensuring that individual liberties were protected against government overreach.

Thomas Jefferson

a primary author of the Declaration of Independence and a key figure in the American Enlightenment. His writings explained principles of natural rights and self-governance that inspired democratic movements globally.

King Louis XVI

the French monarch during the French Revolution whose inability to address the nation's financial crisis led to his downfall. His execution marked the end of absolute monarchy in France and the rise of republicanism.

Marie Antoinette

the Queen of France whose perceived extravagance and foreign origins made her a target of revolutionary anger. Her life and death symbolize the disconnect between the French aristocracy and the suffering of the common people.

Nobles

the privileged class in pre-revolutionary France who held land and political power while being largely exempt from taxes. Their resistance to reform contributed to the social tensions that ignited the French Revolution.

Bourgeoisie

the middle-class members who sought political power and economic equality. They were the primary drivers of the French Revolution, pushing for the end of feudal privileges and the establishment of a constitutional system.

Commoners

people who comprised the vast majority of the French population, including peasants and urban workers. Their grievances regarding taxes and lack of political representation were the primary catalyst for the French Revolution.

Jacobins

a radical political club during the French Revolution known for their role in the Reign of Terror. They pushed for extreme republicanism and the total dismantling of the old social order.

Maximillien Robespierre

a leading member of the Committee of Public Safety and a central figure in the Reign of Terror. His pursuit of a 'Republic of Virtue' through violence eventually led to his own execution and the end of the radical phase of the revolution.

Jean-Paul Marat

a radical journalist and politician whose writings fueled the violence of the French Revolution. His assassination turned him into a martyr for the Jacobin cause and further radicalized the revolutionary government.

Napoleon Bonaparte

a military general who rose to power during the French Revolution and declared himself Emperor of France. He spread revolutionary ideals across Europe and implemented a codex, which modernized legal systems.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

the leader of the Haitian Revolution who successfully led enslaved people to revolt against French colonial rule. His leadership was essential in establishing the first independent black republic in the Americas.

Affranchis

free people of color who sought equal rights with white colonists. Their political activism was a key factor in the lead-up to the Haitian Revolution and the broader struggle for racial equality.

Seven Years War

a global conflict between places like Britain and France that left both nations in massive debt. This financial strain was a direct cause of the tax policies that triggered both the American and French Revolutions.

Ancient Regime

the social and political system of France before revolution, known for feudalism and absolute monarchy. Its collapse marked the transition from a society based on privilege to one based in equality.

Estates General

a legislative assembly representing the three estates of France, which was called by Louis XVI to address the financial crisis. Its failure to resolve voting disputes led to the formation of the National Assembly and the start of the revolution.

Virginia Declaration of Rights

This document was a foundational text that proclaimed the inherent rights of all men, including the right to reform or abolish government. It served as a primary inspiration for the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

This was a fundamental document of the French Revolution that defined individual and collective rights as universal. It challenged the authority of the monarchy and established the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Haitian Declaration of Independence

This document declared Haiti's independence from France i following a successful slave revolt. It is significant for being the first declaration of independence by a nation born from a successful anti-slavery revolution.

Tithe

a tax requiring one-tenth of a person's income or produce to be paid to the Church. In pre-revolutionary France, this burden on the peasantry contributed to widespread resentment against the clergy and the existing social order.

Bastille

a state prison in Paris that was stormed by revolutionaries on July 14, 1789. Its fall became a powerful symbol of the end of royal tyranny and the beginning of the French Revolution.

Women's March on Versailles

This event involved thousands of women marching to Versailles to demand bread and the return of the King to Paris. It forced the royal family to leave their palace, effectively placing them under the control of the revolutionary people.

Reign of Terror

a period of extreme violence during the French Revolution characterized by mass executions of 'enemies of the revolution.' It demonstrated the dangers of radical political extremism and the instability of the revolutionary government.