Cumulative Notes (general)

what is a monomer?

small organic molecule

glucose, amino acid

what is a polymer?

large molecule with identical or similar subunits

starch, protein

macromolecule?

large, organic molecule

starch, amylase

__ is the backbone of biological macromolecules

carbon

hydrolysis reaction

bonds between monomers are broken by the addition of water

pair these together: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine

adenine = thymine, guanine = cytosine

__ were the first organisms 3.8 bya , the most successful and abundant organism on the planet

prokaryotes

3 prokaryote domains?

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

is binary fission sexual or asexual?

asexual

cyanobacteria uses __ into of O2

N2 , also uses sulfer

what limits cell size?

the surface to volume ratio of a cell

what are catabolic pathways?

metabolic pathway that breaks down complex molecules (lipids, etc)

what are anabolic pathways?

a metabolic process that constructs complex molecules from simpler ones (biosynthesis), requiring an input of energy, typically ATP

what was known about DNA and chromosomes in the 1940s?

chromosomes carried the hereditary material, chromosomes consisted of DNA and proteins

first evidence that DNA was the genetic material seen in?

Fred Griffiths, Transformation

What is injected into

bacteria to produce more

viruses, DNA or protein?

DNA

X-ray crystallography of DNA by?

Rosalind Franklin

the DNA double stranded molecule is

anti-parallel

what is semiconservative replication

the standard mechanism of DNA replication where the double-stranded DNA helix separates, and each original strand acts as a template for a new complementary strand. As a result, each daughter molecule consists of one old parental strand and one newly synthesized daughter strand.

The problem of antiparallel stands

because the strands are antiparallel,

only one new daughter strand can be

synthesized in the 5’ – 3’ direction

the lagging strand is produced as a series of short segments known as

Okazaki fragments

genes direct the __ of proteins

synthesis

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is the __

intermediate

How do you go from nucleotides (DNA) to amino

acids (protein)?

transcription & translation

transcription: DNA —> mRNA

translation: mRNA —> protein

DNA

TAGGGGCATGGT

mRNA

AUGCCGUACCA

The first codon was deciphered in 1961 by

Marshall Nirenberg

how many total codons are there?

64

3 stop codons

61 codons specify 20 diff amino acids

what is Bt corn?

corn that has been genetically engineered to kill the insects that eat them. pollen from this might unintentionally kill butterfly larvae

what is BGH?

BGH increases milk output up to 20%

15-20% of cows in U.S are injected with rGBH. rGBH increases insulin-like growth factor in cows

to make herbicide resistant crops we can use

Agrobacterium , inserted into the T-DNA of the plasmid, plasmid is then reinserted into a bacterium, plant cells grow in culture, all new plants from these clones carry the foreign gene (agrobacterium) that makes them resistant to herbicides

in gene expression, during embryonic growth the cells within the embryo become ___

differentiated

Organogenesis: this also forms the major organs and tissues within the body.

__ cells contain all the DNA for the synthesis of a entire organism

differentiated

At what level is gene regulation controlled?

transcriptional

Five types of genetic changes contribute to

genetic variation and evolution

1. mutation within a gene

2. mutation in regulatory gene

3. gene duplication and divergence

4. horizontal transfer

5. exon shuffling

what is exon shuffling?

joining of two exons from two different genes (protein domains)

TPA (tissue plasmogen activator) is a protein that prevents __

blood clotting

explain Insertion transposon near a gene for seed development

(a "jumping gene") near a gene responsible for seed development acts like a roadblock or a switch that can turn that gene on or off unexpectedly. Because seed development is a tightly controlled process, this jump can disrupt the gene, leading to smaller seeds, changed seed composition, or, in some cases, enhanced traits

what is Huntingtons disease?

a fatal, inherited neurodegenerative disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain, impacting movement, cognition, and mental health

Some membrane lipids and proteins move about __ within the membrane

laterally

explain rotational, lateral, and flip flop rotations

rotational: spins in same place

lateral: move around within membrane

flip flop: switches spots with other proteins/lipids

passive transport is __ across a membrane

diffusion

__ is the diffusion of water across a membrane

osmosis

hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic

hypotonic: too much water leading to burst in animal cells, or expanding of plant cells

isotonic: normal leave and adding of water

hypertonic: wilted plant cells unattach from wall, shriveled animal cells

specific proteins - _ __ of selected solutes

facilitate the diffusion

phagocytosis

pinocytosis

cell eating

cell drinking

__ modulates fluidity in eukaryotes

cholesterol

3 mechanisms for active transport?

Na /K + pump, K+ pumps inward Na+ outward

Ca 2+ pump, keeps cytosol calcium levels low

H+ gradients, plants fungi and bacteria use this to transport solutes into cells

how does a sensitive plant work?

mechanically gated and voltage gated ion channels, loss of water and folding of leaf

depolarization is?

a shift in membrane potential

in cell signaling, long distant to individual targets is:

neuronal

in cell signaling, direct physical contact is

contact dependent

2 types of contact dependent signaling is?

natural killer cells and helper T cells

G-protein coupled receptors are the __ __

most common

Oxidation - Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate makes

NADH

1,3 bisphosphoglycerate  3-phosphoglycerate

ATP

two of the most common types of fermentation?

a) lactic acid fermentation

b) alcohol (ethanol) fermentation

products of the krebs cycle? glycolysis? prep step?

see chart