APAH Full Review (except west Asia + islam and later Europe and americas)

The Goldfish: (Fauvism)

• Henri Matisse

• Oil on canvas

• Still life

• Clash of contrasting colors

• White of canvas shows through

• Painted quickly and energetically

• Influence of Japanese woodblock prints

• Fauvism:

  • Work revolves around the use of color and simple forms

  • Color was not given to us so that we could imitate nature, but so that we could express emotion

  • Color from this point forward was no longer required to be literal

    • Extension of Gauguin and Van Gogh

  • Matisse strove to remove nonessential details from his work and retained only the most fundamental qualities of the subjects

• Compare to:

  • Rachel Ruysh’s Fruit and Insects

  • Any other still lifes going forward

Improvisation 28: (Expressionism)

• Vassily Kandinsky

• German Expressionism

• Oil on canvas

• Shows the developing movement towards representational abstraction

• Title comes from musical compositions

• Strong black lines, definitive

  • Colors seem to shade from the black lines

• Kandinsky believed that sound and color were somehow linked and this painting represented the link

• Most of his works have musical titles

  • Composition, improvisation

• Kandinsky wanted the viewer to respond to his painting like a person attending a concert or a sonata

• His work is considered to be an interpretation of his own inner nature

• His works express spiritually through the use of color

• It is very important to note that this was a movement just prior to WWI

Self Portrait as a Soldier: (Expressionism)

• Ernest Kirchner

• German Expressionism

• Oil on canvas

• Kirchner started a group of young artists called “Da Brucke” or “The Bridge”

• Believed they were on the verge of representing the change to come of modernism and the passing of barbarism

• Movement will die with advent of WWI

• Kirchner did not want to go to WWI but volunteered to avoid front lines, driver of a truck that hauled artillery

• Declared unfit for service due to asthma and mental health issues

  • Some claimed he faked both to avoid service

• This work was painted while he recuperated

• Nude model indicates what he used to paint, but no longer can

• Severed hand indicates his idea that he longer longer has the ability to paint

• Hitler, a somewhat trained artist, will absolutely hate the work of modern artists and will take many of the German Expressionists artists’ works in an exhibit called “the degenerate art exhibit” where Kirchner’s work will be mocked and ridiculed publicly

• Compare to any artist self portraits:

  • Le Brun

  • Frida Kahlo

  • Rembrant and Saskia

Memorial Sheet of Karl Liebknecht: (Expressionism)

• Kathe Kollwitz

• Woodcut

• Kollwitz is a radical socialist (communist)

• Her art is dominated by themes of poverty, inequality, and war

• Her son died in WWI

• Karl Liebknecht was a communist leader in Germany that was shot in a communist revolt against WWI

• No political message in this piece, it is supposed to express human grief

  • Strong contrast of black and white is meant to express the grief

• Comparable to Japanese Woodblock Prints

• Modern interpretation of the funerary

  • Compare to any other funerary pieces but consider this one an early 20th century example

Expressionism

• A group of artists formed by Vasily Kandinsky created a group Der Blaue Reiter

• Very interested in the color blue

• Kandinsky was an intellectual, studied Einstein’s papers

• Writings of scientists convinced Kandinsky that there was no solid, tangible reality

• Kandinsky’s work is considered to be the first totally non representational European art

• His work is considered to be an interpretation of his own inner nature

• His works express spiritually through the use of color

• It is very important to note that this was a movement just prior to WWI

Cubism

• Born in the study of Pablo Picasso

• Many will follow in his footsteps and appropriate his work

• Picasso was heavily influenced by the strong lings of African masks that were being stolen from Africa and brought to Europe

• He was inspired to depict the human form in strong angular shapes

• Cubism is dominated by wedges and shading is used to bring about depth

• Two types of cubism:

  • Analytical: jagged edges and sharp lines (only one we need to know)

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (Young Women of Avignon Street): (Cubism)

• Pablo Picasso

• Barcelona

• Oil on canvas

• Inspired by African masks and Post Impressionist painters that put stronger lines into their works

• Shows five prostitutes in a bordello on Avignon Street in Barcelona

  • Each poses for a customer

• Poses are not intended to be alluring, instead awkward, expressionless, and uninviting

• Three on the left are more conservatively painted, two on the right more radical

• Picasso was also highlighting examples of exploitation, women forced into prostitution and the exploitation of Africans

• So much appropriation in this piece

  • Women on left poses like Greek Archaic sculpture

The Portuguese: (Cubism)

• Georges Braque (worked closely with Picasso)

• Analytic Cubism

  • to analyze deeply the lines, structure, and forms of nature

• Oil on canvas

• A complete reaction of naturalistic painting, or painting meant to closely resemble nature

• Fracture forms, the breaking down of objects into smaller forms

• Monochromatic

• Inspired by a Portuguese musician, but not a portrait of a Portuguese musician

• Instead this is an exploration of shapes

• The only realistic elements are the letters and numbers behind the musician, might be a cafe atmosphere

• Significant because it shows greater degrees of abstraction away from naturalism which will be very common in the later 20th century

The Kiss: (Cubism)

• Constantin Brancusi

• Cubist sculpture

• Limestone

• Some argue this piece to be symbolism, other cubism, just know that there is a debate

• Cube like rendering of the male and female bodies intertwined in a kiss

• Brancusi studied under Rodin

  • Appropriates from both Klimt’s version and Rodin’s version of The Kiss

• There were three versions of Brancusi’s the Kiss which he would recreate for the patron that asked for it

• Third version used as a tombstone in Paris of a suicide victim

• Considered to be very Avant Garde, a rejection of the rules to bring about something more primitive and true to nature

The Steerage: (Cubism)

• Alfred Steiglitz

• American Photography

• Considered a realist bc he tools pictures as he saw them, didnt arrange people

• He often looked for diagonal lines as framing elements in his photos

• Some of the people are more likely being deported back to Europe after being denied US entry or those whose visas have expired

• Influenced by Cubist paintings, compared to cubist works by Picasso

  • Steiglitz tried to see shapes and then shoot the image as it was

  • Image has a cubist like arrangement

• Represents the social divisions of society

  • The Steerage is the part of the ship for the poorest passengers

Composition with Red and Blue: (DeStyjl)

• Piet Mondrian 

• Modern art

• DeStyjl: (the style)

  • Began by Piet Mondrian

  • Completely abstract

  • Titles have no reference to anything representational

  • Painted on white background and use black cubes to shape rectangular spaces

  • Only uses primary colors… red, yellow, and blue

  • No diagonal lines

  • Will have major influence on the design of architecture - simple lines, no ornamentation - will often be called “international style”

    • Mondrian intended this style to be art for all cultures and societies, void of tradition or ethnicity

Illustration From The Results of the First 5 Year Plan: (Constructivism)

• Varvara Sepanova

• Soviet Union

• Photomontage and illustration

• Stepanova was one of the main constructivists coming out of soviet russia

• Graphic art used for propaganda, easy to make copies

• Based on Stalin’s Five Year Plan to modernize Russia post revolution so that Russia can be caught up with the West

• Industrialization and modernization seen in the images

  • Electricity brought to Russia by the first Five year plan

• Red dominates as it was the color most associated with communism

• CCP is the Russian spelling of USSR

• Large image of Lenin was meant to stimulate patriotism and nationalism

• Constructivism:

  • Developed out of communist Russia post 1917

  • Vladimir Lenin saw it as removed from the art of the past and the beginning of something new, he gave constructivist a lot of support

  • The art was completely removed from any art form that had come before, seen as egalitarian, for all, not bourgeois. Communists considered all earlier art as either religious indoctrination or art that was intended or meant for the wealthy,... two things commies despise

  • Used new materials that hadn’t been used in art

  • Often used for propaganda purposes

• Compare to pieces of propaganda:

  • Chairman Mao En Route to Anyuan is highly comparable

Surrealism: (elements of it are making sense, but are presented in a way that don’t make sense)

• Inspired by the advent of psychology and the studies of Freud and Jung

• Surrealists were inspired by dreams and their meaning

  • Subconscious thoughts, sort of like Expressionism

• Two types of surrealism:

  • Abstract: suggestive forms but changed, biomorphic

  • Veristic: real objects put together in unusual ways

• The name of the piece often has nothing to do with the image

• It’s not meant to be clearly understood

Object: (Surrealism)

• Meret Oppenheim

• Fur covered cup, saucer, and spoon

• Picasso once said that anything looks good in fur, so Oppenheim created this piece

• It is an assemblage like the DaDa piece Fountain by Duchamp

• Almost created as a joke but became one of the best examples of Surrealist sculpture

• Combines the soft with the hard, feminine masculine overtones

• She became very famous from the work and it will inhibit her growth as an artist

• Compare to:

  • Camelid sacrum

  • Fountain

The Two Fridas: (Surrealism)

• Frida Kahlo

• Mexico

• Oil on canvas

• Frida Kahlo is of Mexican and Jewish ancestry (embodies her multiculturalism)

• Juxtaposition of two self portraits

  • Left: spanish/jewish european ancestry in white lace

  • Right: dressed as a mexican peasant

• Her two hearts are joined together by veins that are cut by scissors at one end and lead to a small portrait of her husband Diego Rivera (artist too)

  • Painted at the time of their divorce. Rivera was a notorious philanderer and Kahlo also had affairs

  • But, Kahlo was forever in love with him

• Two figures share a bench, behind is a stormy sky

• The vein acts like a connection between, a sort of umbilical cord between her and rivera, that has been severed

• Blood on her lap is suggestive of her numerous miscarriages

• Kahlo suffered from polio as a child and was hit by a bus as a young woman

• Her art often showed her struggles and at the same time her refusal to be a domestic middle class Mexican woman that ran a household

• She often scoffed at what society called beautiful and flaunted her characteristics that were considered masculine

Harlem Renaissance:

• African Americans will move to NYC in the 1920s in great numbers

  • The specific neighborhood was Harlem

• Many talented people in a variety of art forms ended up in this neighborhood… music, art, theater, sculpture, poetry, literature

• Began after WWI and will continue through 1930s

• Called the Harlem Renaissance because of the vast artistic movement that developed

  • In general, focused on racial pride, civil rights, and the influence of slavery on modern culture

Migration of the Negro, Panel 49: (Harlem) (narrative)

• Jacob Lawrence

• Tempera on hardboard

• 60 paintings in the series (showing african american life in the south)

  • Each painting in this series united by similar colors

• Depicts African Americans moving from the rural south to urban north post WWI

  • Meant to show the total African American experience

• Flat simple shapes with forms that seem to hover in large spaces of color

• Uses tempera as if going back to the Italian Renaissance

• Scene shows a public restaurant in the north that segregates African Americans from the white patrons

• Yellow poles and rope shows the line of segregation

• Significant because in the time there was greater and greater degrees of abstraction happening within painting, and this artist returns to the narrative function of art to document what is happening with the African art experience 

The Jungle: (Harlem) (appropriation + blending of cultures)

• Wilfredo Lam

• Cuban with Euro-American influences

• Gouache on paper mounted on canvas

• Lam is the cuban of euro asian and african descent and travelled to Europe and the US a number of times

• He was inspired by the multicultural aspects of Cuba's history between spain and african slaves, his art reflects this

• His work is highly influenced by African sculpture and masks, cubism, and surrealism

• In this piece, the crescent figures represent African masks

• This piece address Cuba’s history of slavery and sugar plantations

• In the 1940s, Cuba was known for two things… sugar and a party place for Americans. Lam is showing the laboring lower class cubans in this piece

• Significant because it shows the cross cultural blending and the influence of multiple modern art traditions, surrealism and cubism, in a multicultural setting

• An excellent example of art as a sign of what is happening in society

Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Central Park: (Mexican muralists) (narrative)

• Diego Rivera

• Mexico City

• Fresco

• Painting depicts Alameda Park

• Horror vacui painting of over 400 years of important historical figures of Mexican culture and politics

• Depicts:

  • Sor Juana

  • Benito Juarez, five term president of Mexico

  • General Santa Ana

  • Jose Marti, father of Mexican independence

•  Also shows everyday common mexicans

  • A police officer ordering a family out of an elitist park

  • A young Diego Rivera with his future wife, Frieda Kahlo behind him

• Meant to be viewed from left to right in a sort of timeline of Mexican history trhasting with Cortez through Mexico in the 1940s

• Significant because the painting shows all aspects of Mexican society, not just the “winners of history”

• Rivera guarantees that those who are usually forgotten in history are included in this massive mural

• Mexican Muralists - Diego Rivera:

  • Most of the muralists were trained using fresco technique which had been largely abandoned with the advent of the canvas

  • Mexican moralists painted large paintings that all could see and often had political message

  • The themes of the work of muralists were often socialist in nature, working class struggles, the poor

  • Diego Rivera was the best known of the Mexican muralists

Fountain: (DaDa)

• Marcel Duchamp

• US

• Porcelain China with black paint (text)

• Ready made sculpture

• Entered in an art show and it was refused, said it was not art

• Signed by R. Mutt, which was a play on a popular comic

• The title is a pun. Fountains spout liquid and the urinal collects liquid

• Placing it upside down adds irony to the setting because the liquid would spill

• Forces the viewer to ask “what is art?”

• Duchamp is trying to push the envelope of what’s accepted

• DaDa:

  • A nonsense word that is meant to describe an art movement between 1916-1925 that took place in Germany, France, and US

  • The movement was a reaction to the horrors of WWI, the most violent time the world has ever seen

  • All conventional rules of artistic representation were abandoned

  • DaDaists accepted “ready mades” which were objects of everyday life incorporated into art

  • incorporated words and text into their art

  • DaDa is the victory of the concept of art over the execution of the art

  Armory Show and Duchamp:

  • Armory Show in NYC, a sort of American salon

  • Unjuried, invitees could enter any art they wanted

  • American public was horrified, NYC wanted to get it shut down

Woman I: (abstract expressionism)

• Willem Kooning

• US

• Oil on canvas

• Satirical critique on women in 1950s advertising, camel cigarettes

  • Combination of stereotypes

  • Influenced by everything from Venus of Willendorf to 1950s pin up girls

  • Ironic comment on the artificial world of film and advertising

• Splashing of paint onto canvas

• Jagged lines create an overpowering image

• Simile is cut out from a magazine advertisement

• Series of six paintings

Abstract Expressionism:

• Developed in the US in the 1950s

• This is the first truly American Avant Garde movement, it originated in the US

• Reaction to Mondrian and De Stijil, too minimalist

• Abstract expressionism took a more active approach with the artist’s hand, often described as action painting

The Bay: (color field painting)

• Helen Frankenthaler

• Acrylic with turpentine on canvas

• Very large canvas laid down on the floor

• Canvas unprimed so that the paint soaks into the canvas more directly

• Paint was thinned with paint thinner, turpentine

• Technique is called “soak stain”

  • Paint with thinner is poured onto the canvas

• Inspired by the drip method of Jackson Pollock

• Color Field Painting:

  • A reaction to abstract expressionism of the 1950s

  • Lacks the aggression of the abstract expressionists

  • Relies on subtle tones, softness

  • Adopts new painting styles

Marilyn Diptych: (pop art)

• Andy Warhol

• Oil, acrylic, silkscreen enamel on canvas

• Diptych’s usually reserved for medieval christian worship, now with a pop icon

• Repeated imagery cheapens the idea of Marilyn Monroe, no meaning left

  • Focuses on the cult of celebrity

  • Monroe’s image varies throughout the work, causing the viewer's eyes to move around much the same way as an abstract expressionist work

  • The image is more than a celebration of Monroe, instead it is a critique on the role of mass media in our lives

• Reproduced many times, denies the concept of a unique piece of art, hence “pop art”

• Warhol started this piece a week after Monroe's death

• Pop art:

  • Popular art

  • Developed out of the hyper consumerism of the 1950s and 60s

  • Appropriates from items of everyday world of mass popular culture

    • Movie stars, pop music, common everyday items like cans of soup

  • Generally thought to be a reaction to Abstract Expressionism

Narcissus Garden: (happenings)

• Installation Art (of mirror balls)

• Kusuma is a major Japanese artist

• Originally 1500 large mirror balls placed under a sign that said “your narcissism for sale”

  • Supposed to be a commentary on the narcissism of the modern world

• This image shows a different installation where the balls have been put in water

• Installation has been exhibited in numerous locations around the world

• Happenings:

  • An act of performance art that is initially planned but involves spontaneity, improvisation, and audience participation

Lipstick on Caterpillar Tracks: (happenings)

• Claes Oldenburg

• Yale university

• Steel, aluminum, cast resin, painted with enamel

• Intended for a platform for public speakers for anti-vietnam war protests

• Tank based bottom platform with vertical lipstick was considered anti-war symbolism

• Themes of death, power, desire, and sensuality

• Male and female forms unite

  • Lipstick was hyper femininity 

  • Tank base and middle shape of the lipstick was hyper masculinity

• Originally placed at the main square at yale for 10 months in 1969

• Recreated with steel base and solid lipstick, still at Yale but in a less prominent square

• Oldenburg’s first public work

• Happenings:

  • An act of performance art that is initially planned but involves spontaneity, improvisation, and audience participation

Spiral Jetty: (site art / earth art)

• Robert Smithson

• Salt Lake, Utah

• Mud, stone, dump trucks, and a helicopter

• Extremely remote and abandoned area of the salt lake

• The coil is seen in North American indigenous earthworks similar to the Serpent Mound

• Between 1972 and 2002, the jetty was barely visible as the water level returned to normal

  • Smithson argued that it shouldn’t be preserved and that nature should run its course

• Smithson will die in a helicopter accident while working on a piece in texas

• Site Art / Earth Art:

  • An artistic protest against he perceived artificially and commercialization of art

  • Rejection of the museum

  • Inspired by cubism, modernism, and minimalism

  • Temporary in nature, many exhibits only exist now in photographs or video

  • Robert Smithson is the most known earth artist

Modern Architecture and Architects

• The second industrial revolution which brought about steel and the steam engine will change architecture forever

  • Steel allows for buildings to be built from a very strong yet light skeleton instead of strong, but heavy stone or concrete

• Vertically is the essence of modern architecture

• Louis Sullivan was a student of the Chicago School

  • Sullivan designed on the idea that “Form Follows Function”

    • That means that buildings should be designed in a manner that meets their intended function as best as can possibly be built

Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building: (Modern architecture)

• Louis Sullivan

• Chicago

• Iron, steel, glass, terra-cotta

• Function: department store

• Early form of the skyscraper, all skyscrapers will appropriate from this building

• Sullivan designed this building to sell products, Macy’s, Nordstrom, not Walmart

• Maximum window space on the ground floor for passersby to see displays

• Horizontal emphasis symbolizes continuous flow of floor space to show the shopper that this building has all the items one might need. One stop shopping

• Steel skeleton structure allows for height and lots of windows to let in light

  • Steel skeleton structure encased in decorative terra-cotta tiles and decorated by cast iron decorative elements to give it charm and turn the building into an artistically beautiful place. Turns shopping from being a utilitarian task to a dignified event

• Use of “Chicago Window” to allow ventilation throughout building to keep customers shopping longer

• Significance… form follows function!

Falling Water: (Modern architecture)

• Bear Run, Pennsylvania

• Reinforced concrete, sandstone, steel, and glass

• Frank Lloyd Wright

  • Designed by the idea, “the surrounding landscape should look more beautiful than before any building that was added to it”

    • This is a rejection that a building should be designed in a historic style such as Baroque of Neoclassical

  • Believed architecture should blend organically with its surroundings

  • Architecture should embrace democracy and freedom of movement

  • Believed the fireplace should be the center of the home

  • Self proclaimed “world greatest architect”

    • Even today many agree with him

• Irregular and complex ground plan

• Steel cantilevers to allow porches to extend out past the main living structure

• Floor of living room and walls are made of stone that is found in the region

• The hearth/fireplace is the center of the house, functional both physically and emotionally. Stacked in nature stone

Villa Savoye: (Modern architecture - International Style)

• Le Corbusier

• France

• Steel and reinforced concrete

• Patron: Savoye Family (country house)

• Three bedroom house with servant’s quarters

• Boxlike horizontal quality, an abstraction of a house similar to representational abstraction of art that we may have seen

• Main part of house lifted off the ground by narrow steel posts

  • Cars park under the house and enter the house through the turning circle (stairs)

  • House appears to float on columns

• Subtle colors, white exterior symbolizes modern cleanliness post WWI and Industrial Revolution (soot, smog)

  • Healthy living

• Very few walls, wide open interior with furniture built into the walls that collapses and can be put away

• Open courtyard on the second floor

• Compare to any homes we have studied

  • Monticello

  • House of the Vetti

• Antoine Le Corbusier and the International Style:

  • 1920s through late 50s

  • Geometric and no exterior ornamentation

  • straight/sleek designs. Use of glass and steel

  • “Efficient” and “less is more” are themes in the international style

  • Will become the style of the Modern Skyscraper that looks like walls of glass

  • International Style will become “modernist architecture/style”

  • Le Corbusier is considered the movement’s founder

Seagram Building: (modern architecture)

• Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Philip Johnson

• New York

• Steel frame with glass curtain wall, concrete

  • Ferroconcrete, concrete reinforced with steel, incredibly strong

• An appropriation of the minimalist International Style

• “Less is more” can be seen in this structure, great simplicity, geometry, and elegance

• Set back from the street with a reflecting pool at its base 

• While modern… appropriates from the verticalility of Greek architecture

  • Bronze accents

  • Columns on ground floor have fluting

• The eye automatically catches the verticality of the height with the horizontality of the rows of windows

• Steel and glass skyscrapers will become the model in the post WWII economic boom. This building is the inception 

• Considered a triumph of human architecture at the time, Pax America

House in New Castle County:

• Robert Venturi, John Rausch, and Denise Scott Brown

• Delaware

• Wood frame, stucco

• Traditional american house, familiar elements altered in scale and placement (? mr. lynde didn’t put the notes for these, so if you’re seeing this pls send me the slide notes)

• Postmodern Architecture:

  • Emerged in the 1970s and 80s

  • A reaction to the international style

  • Postmodern architects saw the international style as cold and impersonal

  • Postmodernists like to incorporate ornamentation and decoration with references to the past except in a modern context

    • In other words, modern buildings with references to the past

essential knowledge of Etruscan and Roman art

Etruscan Art and Roman art is characterized by a pantheon of gods celebrated in large civic and religious buildings

Much ancient writing survives in the fields of literature, law, politics, and business. These documents shed light on Roman civilization as a whole and on Roman art in particular

etruscan art is known mainly through archaeology, literary tradition is mostly lost

etruscan: first major empire in Italy, not all Romans are Etruscan, but most of their culture is

there were numerous city states, but the art is studied as a single genre

etruscan art shows heavy Greek influence among other influences

roman art can be subdivided into the following periods: Republican, Early Empire, Late Empire, Late Antique

roman architecture shows an incredible deal of variety and willingness to experiment

roman art and architecture will be embraced in 17th century Europe

Sarcophagus of the Spouses: (Etruscan)

• Cerveteri, Italy

• terracotta

• funerary

• same time period as the Archaic period in Greece (appropriation)

  • Archaic smile

• in ancient times, a man and woman being depicted together is very rare

  • women had higher status in Etruscan society

• Sarcophagus of a married couple whose ashes are placed (likely high status, but not ruling/governing people)

• affectionate

  • both holding the same thing, planning to feed each other

    • possibly an egg which was the Etruscan symbol for life after death

• concentration and detail is on upper body, less on lower half

  • L shaped turn to the body, unrealistic

Temple of Minerva: (Etruscan)

• Mud brick, wood

• veii, italy

• sacred space

• Minerva: Athena in Italy

  • similar to Parthenon in how they both praise the same god

    • but the columns, pediment, and frieze are different

• Vitruvius recorded the Temple of Minerva’s architecture in his writing

  • none of the Etruscan temples exist today, only his writings survive

• three cell for three separate gods

• highly influenced by Greek temples:

  • wood columns

  • capitals (tuscan order)

  • pediment

Apollo (Apulu): (Temple of Minerva at Veii; Etruscan)

• terracotta

• one of four sculptures that stood on the roof of the Temple of Minerva

• strides forward more than Kouros

• Archaic smile

• may be in battle with Hercules

• artists: could be Vulcan of Veii

Tomb of the Triclinium: (Etruscan)

• Tarquinia

• tufa (mud brick) and fresco: takes white wet plaster, smear on wall, take dyed egg white pigments to paint fast while plaster is still wet

• women are light-fair skinned (meant to be inside) while men are dark skinned (meant to be outside

  • appropriated from Greek

• many tombs still exist, believed to be heavily influenced by Greek paintings (none exist)

• piece is named after a dining table, one appears in the painting

• ceiling = polychrome checkerboard pattern; circles = symbolize time

• Etruscan funeral rites were festive and seen as a last time to enjoy a meal with the deceased before crossing over to the afterlife

• overall the tomb suggests a celebration of the dead, dancing figures on the right and left walls, musical instruments

• only Etruscan paintings that survive are funerary and on tomb walls

House of the Vettii: (1st Roman)

• stone and fresco

• Pompeii

• Roman town home (villa = countryside, town home = city)

• peristyle: four stoas and open sky

  • refuge of nature from the city; allows light into the garden but keeps town around them out

• atrium: skylights where water would fall through to the basin underneath

• axial plan: someone entering at the atrium can see the peristyle garden in the back

• cubicula (rooms): on all sides of the atrium

• heavy greek influence/appropriation

• helps understand how Romans decorated their interiors

• in triclinium (dining room) a number of paintings exist in good condition

  • three styles of Pompeian painting, this is the 4th style which combines all three

    • 1: painted rectangular squares

    • 2: large mythical scenes and landscapes

    • 3: small scenes/ images set in a field of color and framed by columns

Head of a Roman Patrician: (Roman Republic)

• marble

• extreme realistic portrait called “Veristic” 

• influence of Hellenistic art of Greece

• Roman patrician/senator (upper ruling class)

  • high status, but not idealized

• did not want youthful and beautiful people running the government, wanted more experience (wisdom)

• realism conveys a seriousness of a mind known to Romans as “gravitas”

  • Gravitas can only come with experience

• youth was valued for beauty in arts, but not for governing authority

• likely sculpted after death

• only characteristic of Republic period

Augustus of Primaporta: (Roman Empire)

• original was in bronze, in marble

• first real roman emperor

• sending message that their king was young, powerful, and strong

  • not showing age and wisdom, youthful strength

• symbolizing that Augustus will bring a golden age to Rome (Pax Romana)

• cupid: son of Venus, aligning with the gods, divine right

• dolphin: naval battle that was won, ending civil war and establishment of Augustus reign

• heavily appropriated from Canon of Polykleitos

• contraposto pose

• youthfulness, strong stetted out arm speaking to troops, stance and modeling after Doryphoros all point to a message of leader

• cuirass (breastplate): covered in propaganda messages

  • Augustus has the gods on his side, he is a military victor, bringing of the Pax Romana lasting 200 years

• message: sun will shine on Rome under the role of Octavian Augustus

• purpose: propaganda to unite the empire after the civil war

roman arches

• improvement on post and lintels

• can bare an extremely heavy load

• arch: series of wedge shaped stones, smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, the wider top does not pass through a narrower bottom

  • allows major amounts of weight to rest on top

• barrel vault: arch continues in a tunnel like fashion

• groin vault: two barrel vaults intersect

• romans will build enormous billings because they support an incredible amount of weight (colosseum, pantheon)

Colosseum: (Roman Empire)

• stone, concrete, travertine

• patrons: Emperors Vespasian and son Titus (Flavian Emperors)

• vast barrel vaults and groin vaults

• Rome was a multiethnic society

• meant for entertainment/spectacles

  • gladiator combat

  • animal hunts

  • recreated battles

• uniquely Roman, but putting two theaters into one is Greek

  • use of doric, ionic, and corinthian columns

• 1st story = tuscan, 2nd story = ionic, 3rd story corinthian

• small square window looking holes at the top

understanding roman forums

“forums” were found throughout every major city in the empire. Essentially the same concept as a Greek agora

the forum in Rome was the most impressive 

center of roman business and government (Athenian Agora)

locations for worship and sacrifice to the local gods

around the sides of the forums would be bathhouses, markets, and government buildings

Forum of Trajan: (Roman Empire)

• architect: Apollodorus of Damascus

• patron: Emperor Trajan

• stone masonry with concrete (uniquely roman) and timber

• forums for many emperors, this is Trajan’s forum

• apse: half circle at the end of the basilica

  • basilicas were originally courthouses/government houses

  • has an axial plan

• large central plaza surrounded by stoa-like buildings on each flank

  • sort of massive peristyle, not technically a peristyle

• included Basilica of Ulpia and Markets of Trajan

• Market:

  • multilevel mall like structure

  • semi circular interior was a series of groin and barrel vaulting

  • significant because it was another example of multi-storied architecture found in Rome like the Flavian Amphitheater

Column of Trajan: (Forum of Trajan; Roman Empire)

• funerary, Trajan’s ashes are at the base of the column

• stood behind the Basilica Ulpia between the Greek and Roman libraries

• 128 foot high narrative telling the conquering the Dacians

• low relief to deter shadowing

• 2,500 different figures, 23 registers circling the column

Pantheon: (Roman Period)

• concrete with stone facing, granite, and pumice

• original would have had two stoas on the side, a lot of steps leading to the entrance, would have not been able to see the circle from the outside

• patron: originally Augustus and Marcus Agrippa but early structure destroyed

  • Pantheon built by Emperor Hadrian

• corinthian capitals on portico (porch)

• two pediments, one in front of the other

• walls of the cupola (dome) are 20 feet thick at base and become thinner as they rise

• oculus (opening at the top) 27 feet wide, allows for sunlight to move across the temple

• roof-ceiling is pumice (light volcanic rock, floats) covered with concrete

• interior is based on a circle

• seven niches in the walls for statues of the gods

• as Rome conquered more regions they wanted to honor the gods of the conquered (massive temple to all gods of the empire)

• has an apse inside

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: (Roman Empire)

• horror vacui: fear of open space

  • extremely crowded surface with figures piled on top of each other

• Pax Romana is over

• Barbarians: one who speaks another language (have beards)

• Christianity is crowing, had a different burial practice (tomb with body intact)

  • prior to this, Romans always cremated

  • things are changing with barbarians coming in and different religious practices

• Sarcophagus with a lid, has imagery all throughout it

• figures lack individuality; expressing confusion of battle

• Roman army defeats barbarians (Romans have no beards)

• youthful Roman general at top center without weapons or helmet showing that he is invincible and needs to protection

• significance: Pax Romana has ended and Rome is at war. Rome begins weakening. Influence of changes in religion, Christians kept the body intact, moving away from cremation

essential knowledge of Greek art

Greek art is characterized by a pantheon (more than one) of gods celebrated in large civic and religious buildings

Much ancient writing survives in the fields of literature law, politics, and business. These documents shed light on Greek civilization as a whole and on Greek art in particular.

greek art is studied chronologically according to changes in style

greek works are not studied according to dynastic rule, as in Egypt, but according to broad changes in stylistic patterns

greek art is most known for its idealization and harmonic proportions both in sculpture and in architecture

greek art has had an important impact on European art and architecture

greeks are a seafaring culture, will take over Mesopotamia and Egypt

gods serve as showing bad behavior, as what not to do

greeks traded heavily with Egypt

democracy comes out of Greece

Athenian Agora:

• limestone

• first multifunction (plaza and city) center for people to meet (place for the people = democracy

• setting for Panathenaic festivals and many altars for other greek gods

  • once a year all citizens held a parade, entering at the Dipylon Gate, walking up the holy side (Acropolis; sacred space) to give the statue of Athena a new garment (peplos) on her birthday

• plaza was surrounded by a bouleterion (city hall) used by council, tholos temples (round temples/gazebos) and stoas (covered walkways with columns on one side and a wall on on the other)

• rebuilt and remodeled numerous time across many periods

Anavysos Kouros: (Archaic)

• marble and paint (was brightly painted)

• heavily appropriates from Egyptian sculpture (square shoulders, 1 step forward)

• funerary; a grave marker for a young man killed in battle

  • not a portrait; idealization of an ideal warrior

• kouros: naked youth

• rigidly frontal

• idealizing democracy and sacrifice, not idealizing rich pharaohs in Egypt

• “Archaic Smile”

• Athens

Peplos Kore: (Archaic)

• marble and paint (was brightly painted)

• not funerary; hand appearing out of sleeve was some sort of tribute or offering

• peplos is the garment she’s wearing

• breaks mold of archaic statuary with arm extending away from body

• may have been representation of a goddess due to extended arm

  • Artemis (bow and arrow) or Athena

Niobides Krater: (Classical)

• clay

• found in Italy, showing greek trade

• first time in greek vase paintings that the heads of the figures are not on the same level

• Archaic: black figure technique (large figures in black on the natural red surface of clay)

• Classical: Anokides introduces red figure technique (vases painted black and natural red surface of clay depicted the figures)

• greek myth of killing of Niobi’s children

  • Niobi bragged about her fertility with 7 daughters and 7 sons

  • Leto heard the bragging, used her only two children (Artemis and Apollo) to kill Niobi’s children

• other side could be Hercules surrounded by heroes and Athena, or warriors of Marathon placing themself under Hercules’ protection

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer): (Classical)

• Polykleitos

  • Polykleitos made formula for human form: The Canon (based on Phythagoras)

• roman marble copy of a greek bronze original

• lost wax technique: 

  • forms sculpture with wax, puts it in a box open at the top, box filled with plaster, wax inside melted, then turn plaster upside down to fill with bronze

• distinct from Archaic for being more nature with contrapposto pose (putting our weight on one side then switching to the other)

• considered ideal male form by Spartans (warrior + athlete)

  • found in Pompeii in an athletic/recreational complex (people would work out and aspire for his perfect figure)

• held spear in left hand

• not intended to look at the viewer (stoic and contemplative)

Greek architecture (capitals + structure)

Doric/Tuscan: top row

• most strong

• fluting: indents in columns

• frieze: three long stones → metope (image telling a story) → three more stones…

Ionic: second row

• looks like a scroll

• smooth frieze, no metope or stones

Corinthian: last row

• least strong

• most decorative

stylobate: foundation of building (could be stairs)

pediment: triangle roof-top

Acropolis/Parthenon: (Athenian Agora; Classical)

• Marble

• 1st sacred space in Europe (hypostyle hall)

• interior has ionic order (built later), outside is doric order

• architects: Iktinos (made doric) and Kallikrates (made ionic)

• patron: citizens of Athens through leadership of Pericles

  • originally built in archaic, destroyed when Persians sacked Athens

• Delian League: Pericles used funds donated by all greek city states incase Persians returned

• cela had massive gold and ivory statue of Athena that is lost

• greeks skilled at geometry and algebra, shown in design of Parthenon (to connect with the divine)

  • no right angles

• when ottomans took over Greece they blew apart the inside

Helios, Horses, and Dionysos: (Parthenon; Classical)

• east pediment of the Parthenon

• marble 

• may have been sculpted by Phidias

• story of birth of Athena

  • born from the head of Zeus, other deities are watching

• Dionysus: god of wine and leisure (bachelor, unmarried man)

• seated figures: goddesses Demeter and Persephone

• numerous contrapposto poses

Plaque of Ergastines: (Parthenon; Classical)

• portion of inner ionic frieze of the Parthenon

• marble

• depicts Panathenaic Procession held every year to honor Athena

  • in the procession the people of Athens enter at the Dipylon Gate and end at Athena, giving her a new peplos

    • Ergastines: women in Athens who wove Athena’s peplos

• unique: human event (not deities) shown in the temple

• depicting six Ergastines greeted by two priests

• Isocephalism: all the heads are at the same level

• viewed from the floor; figures become more three dimensional at higher parts of the relief

Temple of Athena: (Parthenon; Classical)

• Kalikrates

• Marble

• At Acropolis to commemorate the “victory” over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon

• Ionic period was firmly in place, columns and frieze (built when Parthenon was finished or close to) 

• Inside is a wood sculpture of Athena, dressed in new peplos in Panathenaic procession

• many sculptures of Nike (victory)

Nike Adjusting her Sandal: (Temple of Athena; Parthenon; Classical)

• marble

• high relief

• very deep drapery, looks as wet, revealing the body

• embodies characteristics of Classical sculpture

  • her balance is achieved through exaggerated contrapposto pose

Grave Stele of Hegeso: (Classical)

• Kallimachos

• Dipylon cemetery, Athens

• marble and paint

• funerary in classical period (very different from Kouros)

• regular woman’s gravestone, but comes from high status family

  • honors her and her father from the writing at the top (status of women)

• she’s being depicted in a house (women’s place was in the home)

  • greek woman couldn’t leave without a charperone

  • women who did go out alone = prostitutes

• Hegeso = seated woman examining a piece of jewelry brought by a servant (not visible, originally painted)

• significance: what is not shown

  • Dipylon cemetery included sculptures of men outdoors, engaging in professions (hunting, athletics, warfare)

hellenistic art

• 320-30 BCE

• Greek culture spreads out from the Balkan Peninsula into Asia and Africa

• blending of Greek classical art with art from the east (Turkey, Iraq,Iran)

• diffusion of greek culture through trade, Alexander the Great, and the Roman Empire

• art shows movement, emotion, childhood, old age

  • shows wide range of human condition when classical sculpture only embraced stoic youthful

• Greek, but dramatic!

Nike of Samothrace: (Hellenistic)

• marble

• found in situ on Island of Samothrace (close to Turkey)

• found in a fountain with a boat like shape, meant to be the statue on the bow of a boat

• wet drapery look meant to imitate the water on the bow of a boat or from the fountain

• appears as if the wind was in the wings; slight twist in contrapposto pose as Nike lands her feet on the bow while adjusting for wind

• monumental in size

• right arm could have held a victory crown

• major greek naval battle occurred off of Samothrace, this sculpture may be commemorative of that victory

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon, Coastal Turkey: (Hellenistic)

• marble

• narrative

• sacred space

• dramatic and steep flight of stairs leading to platform where fires burn in honor of Zeus (sacrifices and offerings made)

• ionic order throughout, telling story of story of Zeus and Athena wraps around the monument

• superiority of the Greek Gods to original gods

• one religion replacing a local religion

  • propaganda to locals

• only portion that is original is the frieze, temple is a recreation

• in Berlin today

Athena portion of Frieze: (Great Altar of Zeus and Athena; Hellenistic)

• superiority of the Greek Gods to original gods

• one religion replacing a local religion

  • propaganda to locals

• Athena victorious over a giant named Alkyoneos while his mother watches

• Alkyoneos being dragged up the stairs to worship Zeus

• Nike appears from behind to lay a victory crown on Athena’s head

• deeply carved, high relief, dramatic tension in body and faces

Seated Boxer:

• bronze; one of very few Greek bronzes to survive

• shows an aged boxer looking up at his opponent in defeat

  • smashed nose, blood runs in copper drips onto his face and arms

  • copper used as highlights on lips, nipples, straps on gloves, wounds on head

  • great emotion, agony of both physical and emotional defeat (don’t see that emotion in Classical)

• ancient romans most likely brought the sculpture from Greece to Rome

Alexander Mosaic From the House of Faun: (Hellenistic)

• a Roman copy floor mosaic Pompeii

• mosaics: small colored stones and shells to create a picture

• complex interweaving of figures

• battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia

  • Alexander at left, assured of his success

  • Darius reaches for Alexander but his charioteer commands retreat

• Greek wall paintings no longer exist, so this Roman copy is the closest thing to the Greek genre

• shows extreme attention to detail, emotion, directionality, multiple poses, foreshortening

• connect to Persepolis

Tomb Named Al-Khazneh, “The Treasury”: (Hellenistic)

• Nabataean Peoples

• Jordan

• Pre-Islamic/Greek influence

• rock cut tomb

• Hellenistic in style, both Greek and near eastern architecture

• figurative sculpture adorns the tomb, Amazons, Isis (Egypt)

• Greek/Roman influence on lower half

• Tholos on upper floor, broken pediment (unique)

• Corinthian columns, not evenly spaced 

Great Temple of Petra: (Hellenistic)

• Nabataean Peoples

• Jordan

• Pre-Islamic/Greek influence

• cut rock

• Hellenistic influence, but the culture is not necessarily Greek, influenced through trade

• Patron: Aretha IV

• Silk Road, merchant peoples

• Dead buried in rock cut tombs on hillside behind temple

• A combo Greek and Egyptian temple amongst a nomadic trading people showed the influence of Greek Hellenistic culture

• well developed metropolis

White Temple and Its Ziggurat

• Sumerian

• Uruk, Iraq

• Mud

• Commoners lived beneath the Ziggurat, priests live in the temple

• Ziggurats are meant to connect the earth to the heavens

• Complex appeared to be a mountain rising out of the sky

• sacred space

• Cella: chamber in the Temple

• rituals done in temple and terrace outside

• was a location for farmers to pay taxes

Sumerian Votive Figurines

• Gypsum inlaid shell and black limestone

• votive: together, staying loyal

• hierarchy of scale: ones that are more important are larger

• wide open eyes = total devotion

• figures used as gifts of gratitude to Gods to replace the humans that could not always be praying to the God in person

  • replaced an actual person, but kept the belief that a person was present in the figurine

• none were found in situ (original situation), all buried under the temple instead off inside of it

Great Ziggurat of Ur

• mud brick, baked brick, and tar

• similar to Ziggurat at Uruk in function, but this is 1000 years later and far more complex

  • showing continuity and change over time

• three separate terraces between 70-100 feet high

• Temple of Nanna is the highest terrace

• location where farmers brought their harvest to pay taxes and receive allotments (land) from governing clergy

  • spiritual and physical nourishment

Standard of Ur

• Sumerian

• narrative in function

• wood, shell, lapis lazuli, limestone 

• organized in registers (rows)

• two sides: war and peace

• hierarchy of scale

• reflects trade networks outside of Sumer:

  • lapis = Afghanistan

  • shells = Persian Gulf

  • red limestone = India

• likely in a wealthy person’s tomb or belonged to one, could have been a sound box

Victory Stele or Naram Sim

• Akkadian

• Sandstone

• bas (low) relief = background is cut out 

• narrative battle scene

• steles always commemorate something: victory of Akkad over Lullabi

• hierarchy of scale = Naram Sim is the largest figure

• propaganda proclaiming Naram Sim’s military and religious authority 

• horned helmet is a sign of divinity (bulls horn)

Stele of Hammurabi

• Iran

• basalt

• Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia (Babylon)

• earliest written law code in history

• stood in the middle of a town

• the God Shamash on the right is wearing a horned helmet (bulls = divinity), sitting on a temple/ziggurat

• Shamash hands Hammurabi a ring and scepter, signifying Hammurabi’s god-given right to rule and establish the law code (divine right)

• Hammurabi’s figure is idealized (arm muscles)

Lamassu

• Iran

• Assyrian (they conquer mesopotamia after Hammurabi’s death)

• limestone

• put at the gates of the capital city of Khorasbad (by King Sargon II)

• Apotropaic: keeps evil things/spirits away (ward off enemies)

• human-headed winged animal guardian, five legs

• from the front = standing

• from the side = walking

• bulls horn crown (divinity)

Persepolis

• Fars Province, Iran

• limestone

• Persians (had biggest empire, conquered assyrians and babylonians)

  • but Alexander the Great (Greek) will destroy and conquer all of Persia)

• built by Darius I and Xerxes 

• multiple palaces used for large receptions, festivals, and celebrations

• used to convey power and prestige to the conquered regions that came to the palaces to pay taxes

• had Lamassu at gates (appropriated from Assyrians

• apadana: audience hall

  • 36 columns and wooden roof

    • inverted lotus at the bottom, the top had bulls

  • reception hall for a king

  • had relief sculptures of representatives from the subject nations (greeks, Egyptians, babylonians) bringing taxes

    • had registers (standard of ur)

• compared to capital cities like nan modol

characteristics of ancient near east

• mostly concentrates on royal figures and gods

• everything is inspired on religion, kings are often considerer a god/divine

  • stylistic conventions of the time: hierarchy of scale, registers, stylized human forms

• architecture is characterized by ziggurats and palaces

• for all places, the further you go in, the more sacred it gets

Apollo 11 Stones

• Period: Paleolithic

• Location: Namibia, South Africa

• Material/Technique: Charcoal on stone

• Importance: Culture at this time was based on the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and just existing, held rituals to influence and control animal behavior

Venus of Willendorf

• Period: Paleolithic

• Location: Willendorf, Austria

• Material/Technique: Limestone, subtractive method

• Importance: fertility and child-bearing goddesses, may have been held during labor

Lascaux Caves

• Period: Paleolithic

• Location: Dordogne, France

• Material/Technique: Paint made from natural resources, walls scraped to make even for painting

• Importance: Sacred space, artistry becomes more of a specialized skill (social-stratification) in 15,000-13,000 BCE

Bison with Turned Head

• Period: Paleolithic

• Location: Dordogne, France (near Lascaux Caves)

• Material/Technique: Carved from reindeer antler, used on a spear

• Importance: Carved with small tools, showing that the culture (most likely same as artists who made Lascaux caves) had social-stratification

Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine

• Period: Paleolithic

• Location: Tequixquiac, Mexico

• Material/Technique: Sculpture of a bone of an extinct camel (social-stratification)

• Importance: Most likely religious purposes (hunting/worship), one natural form was used to make another natural form

Running Horned Woman

• Period: Paleolithic/Neolithic (transition between both periods)

• Location: Tassili’ nAjjer, Algeria

• Material/Technique: Pigment on rock

• Importance: Climate change transformed Sahara from a grassland to a desert, composite view of the body, dots reflect ritualistic makeup

Beaker with Ibex Motifs

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Susa, Iran

• Material/Technique: Terracotta

• Importance: Funerary purposes (found near burial site), might have held ashes, transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyle to residing in villages (requiring storage), middle of horns could be clan symbol identifying the family of the deceased

Anthropomorphic Stele

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Arabian Peninsula

• Material/Technique: Sandstone

• Importance: Anthropomorphic (relating to human form), found near ancient trade routes, could be funerary (gravestone) or religious

Jade Cong

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Liangzhu, China

• Material/Technique: Jade

• Importance: Jade appears at burial sites of elites (funerary), placed in and around bodies, many seem burned, four corners have a face pattern that could be spirits or deities

Stonehenge

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Wilshire, England

• Material/Technique: Sandstone, post (vertical) and lintel (horizontal) construction, mortise and tenon (legos)

• Importance: could have oriented sunrise on the longest day of the year, predict eclipses, or that it was a ceremonial center (sacred space) concerning death and burial since bodies were found nearby

Ambum Stone

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Papua New Guinea

• Material/Technique: Greywacke stone (stone used to carve stone)

• Importance: Anthropomorphic, anteater in fetal position, anteaters were important food source for the island culture

Tlatilco Female Figure

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Central Mexico

• Material/Technique: Terracotta

• Importance: Stylized hair (stratification), shamanistic/religious function

Terracotta Fragments

• Period: Neolithic

• Location: Solomon Islands

• Material/Technique: Terracotta, pottery

• Importance: Imagery and style similar to Polynesian cultures, symbolizes cultural history

Nan Madol

• Period: NR

• Location: Ancient Capital city of Saudeleur Dynasty of (Ponpei) Micronesia

• Material/Technique: Basalt, coral rock boulders connected by canals

• Importance: Built in shallow waters in shape of a boat, allowed trade winds to flow through the city (natural cooling system), canals flushed clean daily by tides, upper class lived close to king (probably seen as a threat), lower classes lived further

Moai on Platform

• Period: NR

• Location: Rapa Nui (Easter Island) Chile, Polynesia

• Material/Technique: Volcanic tuff (basalt / ash stone), built on platforms of stone

• Importance: Platforms mixed with ashes from cremations, both statues and platforms are sacred, images represent chieftains and leaders deified after death, combination of sacredness with power and authority

Ahu Ula

• Period: NR

• Location: Hawaii, Polynesia

• Material/Technique: made from 500k bird feathers

• Importance: Red represents royal color, artist chanted wearer’s ancestors names while making the cloak to let the cloak help/protect/guide the wearer, status symbol of power and authority

Staff God

• Period: NR

• Location: Rarotonga, Cook Islands, Polynesia

• Material/Technique: Wood, tapa, fiber, and feathers

• Importance: Staff placed in common area of a village, most destroyed/knocked over by Christian Missionaries, male and female elements, wooden core made by men, tapa cloth made by women

Female Deity

• Period: NR

• Location: Nukuoro, Micronesia

• Material/Technique: breadfruit wood

• Importance: Used in ceremonies respecting ancestors, kept in a communal sacred space, honored women/female deities (divine/goddesses), in ceremonies the figure would be clothed

Buk Mask

• Period: NR

• Location: Torres Strait, Melanesia (btwn Papua New Guinea and Australia)

• Material/Technique: Turtle shell, wood, fiber, feathers, sea shells

• Importance: Ceremonies related to death, fertility, and male initiation, which included fire, drumming, chanting, and recreated stories of ancestors and the power of their ancestors in modern lives

Hiapo (tapa)

• Period: NR

• Location: Niue, Polynesia

• Material/Technique: Tapa (bark cloth)

• Importance: Commemorating an event, honoring a chief, noting ancestors, each symbol or set of symbols has a meaning, women’s art, can serve as a symbol of status and rank

Tamati Waka Nene

• Period: NR

• Artist: Gottfried Lindauer

• Patron: Henry Partridge

• Location: Hokianga, New Zealand, Polynesia

• Material/Technique: oil on canvas, painting

• Importance: Made after his death (posthumous), European style of painting (subject turned to the side, sky in the background), tattoos and stag with eye represent rank, Maori facial tattoos signaled rank as the highest rank had a majority of their face covered, Combination of cultures (European and Maori)

Navigation Chart

• Period: NR

• Location: Marshall Islands, Micronesia

• Material/Technique: Wood and fiber

• Importance: Diagonal lines indicate wind and water currents, shells indicate islands, not always used at sea, used for memorization

Malangan Mask and Carvings

• Period: NR

• Location: Papua New Guinea, Melanesia

• Material/Technique: Wood, pigment, fiber, shells

• Importance: Ancestor worship, highly ritualistic with a natural agricultural surplus, funerary spiritual beliefs dictated that deceased must be guided into the afterlife, carvings are created for the ceremony and left to rot, while the masses are created for the family to stay, portraits of the soul, no two masks are the same, artists were always creating the mask