Memory

What is the psychological definition of 'learning'?

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

How do reflexes differ from instincts regarding the complexity of the behavior?

Reflexes are simple motor or neural reactions to specific stimuli, while instincts are complex patterns of behavior involving the whole organism.

Which innate behaviors involve more primitive centers of the central nervous system, such as the spinal cord and medulla?

Reflexes.

Innate behaviors triggered by broader range of events like maturation or the change of seasons are called _____.

instincts

What occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment?

Associative learning.

In classical conditioning, what is a 'neutral stimulus' (NS)?

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response prior to conditioning.

What term describes a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism without any prior learning?

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

The dogs' salivation in response to the taste of food in Pavlov's experiment is an example of a(n) _____.

unconditioned response (UCR)

How does a neutral stimulus (NS) become a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

By being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

What is the term for a behavior caused by a conditioned stimulus after learning has taken place?

Conditioned response (CR).

Concept: Higher-order conditioning

Definition: A process where an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a new neutral stimulus.

What is the name for the initial period of learning in classical conditioning where a connection between stimuli is established?

Acquisition.

The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus is called _____.

extinction

What phenomenon occurs when a previously extinguished conditioned response returns following a rest period?

Spontaneous recovery.

In classical conditioning, what is 'stimulus discrimination'?

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

The tendency to demonstrate the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus is called _____.

stimulus generalization

Who is considered the founder of behaviorism?

John B. Watson.

What was the primary goal of Watson and Rayner's experiment with 'Little Albert'?

To demonstrate that human emotions, such as fear, could be conditioned responses.

According to Edward Thorndike's law of effect, what happens to behaviors followed by satisfying consequences?

They are more likely to be repeated.

What is the fundamental difference between classical and operant conditioning regarding stimulus timing?

In classical conditioning, the stimulus occurs before the response; in operant conditioning, it occurs after the response.

In the context of operant conditioning, what does the term 'positive' signify?

The addition of a stimulus.

In the context of operant conditioning, what does the term 'negative' signify?

The removal of a stimulus.

What is the primary objective of any form of reinforcement?

To increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.

What is the primary objective of any form of punishment?

To decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Which operant conditioning process involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior?

Positive reinforcement.

Removing an annoying seatbelt 'beep' once the belt is buckled is an example of _____.

negative reinforcement

How does 'positive punishment' function to change behavior?

It adds an undesirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.

Taking away a child's favorite toy to stop misbehavior is an example of _____.

negative punishment

In horse training, applying leg pressure and then releasing it when the horse moves is an example of which conditioning process?

Negative reinforcement.

What is 'shaping' in operant conditioning?

The process of rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior.

What are 'primary reinforcers'?

Stimuli with innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned, such as food or water.

A reinforcer that has no inherent value but gains reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer is a(n) _____.

secondary reinforcer

What is a 'token economy'?

A behavior management system where tokens (secondary reinforcers) are traded for rewards or privileges.

What is the 'rule of thumb' for the duration of a time-out in behavior modification?

One minute for each year of the child’s age.

What is 'continuous reinforcement'?

A schedule where an organism receives a reinforcer every single time it displays the target behavior.

Which reinforcement schedule rewards behavior after a set, predictable amount of time?

Fixed interval.

A reinforcement schedule where rewards are delivered after an unpredictable amount of time is called a(n) _____.

variable interval schedule

What defines a 'fixed ratio' reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses occur.

Which reinforcement schedule results in high, steady response rates and is most resistant to extinction?

Variable ratio.

In terms of productivity and extinction, which reinforcement schedule is considered the least productive?

Fixed interval.

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the 'rush' felt by gamblers in the brain's reward centers?

Dopamine.

What was B.F. Skinner’s perspective on the role of the mind in learning?

He viewed the mind as a 'black box' that was unknowable and unnecessary to study for behaviorism.

What is 'latent learning'?

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is a reason or incentive to do so.

A mental picture of the layout of one's environment is known as a(n) _____.

cognitive map

Who conducted the experiments with rats in mazes that provided evidence for latent learning?

Edward C. Tolman.

What is 'observational learning'?

The process of learning by watching others and then imitating their actions.

What are 'mirror neurons'?

Specific neurons suggested to be involved in the process of imitative learning.

Who is the primary psychologist associated with social learning theory and the Bobo doll experiment?

Albert Bandura.

How does social learning theory differ from strict behaviorism?

It accounts for cognitive processes and internal mental states rather than just external reinforcement.

In modeling, what is a 'symbolic model'?

Fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in media like books, movies, or the Internet.

What is the first step in the modeling process according to Bandura?

Attention.

In the modeling process, what is 'retention'?

The ability to remember the behavior that was observed.

What is the final step in the modeling process required for a learner to successfully copy a behavior?

Motivation.

Learning through seeing a model being rewarded for their behavior is known as _____.

vicarious reinforcement

What is 'vicarious punishment'?

A decrease in the learner's motivation to copy a behavior after seeing a model being punished for it.

According to Bandura, what effect do 'prosocial models' have on behavior?

They encourage socially acceptable and positive behaviors.

What is an 'antisocial effect' of observational learning?

The imitation of negative or harmful behaviors, such as aggression or abuse.

Research by Anderson suggests that there is a causal link between exposure to media violence and what?

Aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

What percentage of child abuse victims are estimated to become abusive parents themselves according to the source material?

$30\%$.

What is a 'verbal instructional model' in observational learning?

A model that explains or describes a behavior without actually performing it.

In classical conditioning, the process of 'extinction' occurs when the CS is presented without the _____.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Why is 'taste aversion' considered an evolutionary adaptation?

It helps organisms quickly learn to avoid harmful foods, aiding survival.

What did the Rescorla-Wagner model demonstrate about classical conditioning?

The probability of an association depends on how reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus.

In operant conditioning, 'shaping' is necessary because organisms are unlikely to spontaneously display _____.

complex behaviors

Slot machines are designed to operate on which reinforcement schedule?

Variable ratio.