AP Psychology BOE 1

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome is already known, that one would have foreseen it.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable used in a research study.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the environment.

Survey

A research method that involves gathering data from a large group of people, usually through questionnaires or interviews.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe their effects on some behavior or mental process.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Population

The entire group of individuals or instances about which researchers are interested.

Random Sample

A sample in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Convenience Sample

A sample that is selected based on availability or ease of access, not randomly chosen.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who has received the treatment or placebo.

Placebo

A harmless substance or treatment given to a participant in an experiment as a control to test the effect of the actual treatment.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to determine its effect.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to see if it is influenced by changes in the independent variable.

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether the results of a study are likely to be due to chance or if they reflect a true effect.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon or the magnitude of an experimental effect.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Quantitative Measures

Data that can be measured and expressed numerically.

Qualitative Measures

Data that is descriptive and involves characteristics that cannot be counted or measured.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to determine the overall effect of a treatment or variable.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the welfare of others, often leading to selfless acts.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when they are working alone.

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help, not harm, those who have helped them.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals or groups.

Social Trap

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their own self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

Mutual views often held by conflicting parties, where each side sees itself as ethical and the other as evil or aggressive.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences a person’s behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation to be achieved.

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes or beliefs through discussion within the group.

Groupthink

A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts, often leading to poor decision-making.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Ingroup

The social group to which an individual feels they belong.

Outgroup

The social group to which an individual feels they do not belong, often viewed with distrust or competition.

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor one’s own group over others.

Prejudice

An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Stereotype

A generalized belief or expectation about a group of people, often oversimplified or inaccurate.

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone.

Frustration-Aggression Principle

The principle that frustration, the blocking of an attempt to achieve a goal, creates anger, which can lead to aggression.