AP Psychology BOE 1

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after an outcome is already known, that one would have foreseen it.

Operational Definition: A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable used in a research study.

Case Study: An in-depth analysis of an individual or group to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the environment.

Survey: A research method that involves gathering data from a large group of people, usually through questionnaires or interviews.

Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe their effects on some behavior or mental process.

Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Population: The entire group of individuals or instances about which researchers are interested.

Random Sample: A sample in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Convenience Sample: A sample that is selected based on availability or ease of access, not randomly chosen.

Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Double-Blind Procedure: An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who has received the treatment or placebo.

Placebo: A harmless substance or treatment given to a participant in an experiment as a control to test the effect of the actual treatment.

Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to determine its effect.

Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment to see if it is influenced by changes in the independent variable.

Statistical Significance: A measure of whether the results of a study are likely to be due to chance or if they reflect a true effect.

Effect Size: A quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon or the magnitude of an experimental effect.

Standard Deviation: A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Quantitative Measures: Data that can be measured and expressed numerically.

Qualitative Measures: Data that is descriptive and involves characteristics that cannot be counted or measured.

Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to determine the overall effect of a treatment or variable.

Just-World Phenomenon: The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Altruism: Unselfish concern for the welfare of others, often leading to selfless acts.

Bystander Effect: The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present.

Social Loafing: The tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when they are working alone.

Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that people will help, not harm, those who have helped them.

Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals or groups.

Social Trap: A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their own self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-Image Perceptions: Mutual views often held by conflicting parties, where each side sees itself as ethical and the other as evil or aggressive.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A belief or expectation that influences a person’s behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Superordinate Goals: Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation to be achieved.

Group Polarization: The enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes or beliefs through discussion within the group.

Groupthink: A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts, often leading to poor decision-making.

Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Ingroup: The social group to which an individual feels they belong.

Outgroup: The social group to which an individual feels they do not belong, often viewed with distrust or competition.

Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group over others.

Prejudice: An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group.

Discrimination: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Stereotype: A generalized belief or expectation about a group of people, often oversimplified or inaccurate.

Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone.

Frustration-Aggression Principle: The principle that frustration, the blocking of an attempt to achieve a goal, creates anger, which can lead to aggression.